^ 


THE  LIBRARY 

OF 

THE  UNIVERSITY 

OF  CALIFORNIA 

LOS  ANGELES 


?r^ 


Oxford 


v* 


SCOTTISH    EDUCATION 
SCHOOL    AND     UNIVERSITY 


CAMBRIDGE    UNIVERSITY   PRESS 

aonUon:    FETTER   LANE,    E.G. 

C.   F.   CLAY,   Manager 


CFUinbursf) :   loo,  PRINCES  STREET 

IScrlin:   A.  ASHER  AND  CO. 

ILcipjts:   F.   A.    BROCKHAUS 

i^cta  lork:    G.  P.  PUTNAM'S  SONS 

ISombajj  ant  Calcutta :  MACMILLAN  AND  CO.,  Ltd. 


I 


All  rights  reserved 


SCOTTISH    EDUCATION 
SCHOOL    AND    UNIVERSITY 

FROM  EARLY  TIMES  TO   1908 


BY 


JOHN  KERR,  M.A.,  LL.D. 

Trinity  College,  Cambridge 

Formerly  Senior  Chief  Inspector  of  Schools 

and  Training  Colleges  in   Scotland 


Cambridge : 
at  the  University  Press 
1910 


Cambritigc : 

PRINTED   BY  JOHN   CLAY,    M.A. 
AT  THE   UNIVERSITY   PRESS 


651 


PREFACE 

WHEN,  at  the  suggestion  of  the  Syndics  of  the  Cambridge 
University  Press,  I  undertook  to  write  the  History  of 
Scottish  Education  from  early  times  to  the  present  day,  I  did  so 
with  much  hesitation.  The  difficulty  of  presenting  within 
comparatively  narrow  limits  such  an  account  of  a  large  subject 
as  would  be  at  once  solid  enough  to  be  useful  to  the  educationist, 
and  interesting  enough  to  appeal  to  the  general  reader,  seemed 
a  very  serious  one.  As  I  have  proceeded  with  my  task  that 
difficulty  has  not  disappeared.  All  important  as  education  is 
for  the  well-being  of  a  nation,  it  cannot  be  called  a  generally 
attractive  subject.  There  is  no  doubt  in  every  community  a 
small  percentage  who  take  a  special  interest  in  it,  but  as  a  rule, 
it  is  only  those  who  are  practically  or  professionally  in  close 
quarters  with  it  who  give  serious  consideration  to  either  the 
history  or  the  details  of  education.  While  the  admirably 
accurate,  and,  for  the  period  and  subject  covered,  exhaustive 
record  in  Grant's  Burgli  Schools  of  Scotland  is  a  perfect  store- 
house of  facts  accompanied  by  eminently  sensible  comments, 
it  is  more  a  book  for  reference  than  continuous  perusal.  In  the 
work  which  I  have  undertaken  it  is  not  desirable,  even  if  it  were 
possible,  to  introduce  the  innumerable  details  which  Mr  Grant 
has  with  most  praiseworthy  industry  and  skill  brought  together. 
My  aim  has  been  to  select  from  them  and  other  available  sources 
such  as  are  typical  of  the  time  and  locality  to  which  they  belong, 
and  present  them — to  use  the  language  of  Art — in  an  impres- 
sionist or  bird's-e)-e  view. 

It  can  scarcely  be  said  that   the  historian  of  education,  in 
dealing  with  what  precedes  the   I2th   Century,  is   standing  on 

825079 


vi  PREFACE 

sufficiently  solid  ground.     With   that  century  accordingly  our 
history  begins. 

The  History  falls  conveniently  into  four  periods. 

First       (a)     Schools    from    early   times    to    1560   and    the 
founding  of  Grammar  Schools. 

(l?)     The  founding  of  the  three  oldest  Universities. 

Second  (a)     Schools  from    1560  to    1696,  the  Reformation 
era. 

(d)     The  Universities  of  the  same  period. 

Third     (a)     Schools   from    1696  to    1872,  the  era  of  well- 
established  Parish  Schools. 

(d)  The  Universities  from  1696  to  the  period  when, 
by  the  Act  of  1858,  they  may  be  said  to 
have  been  nationalised. 

Fourth  (a)     Schools  from  1872  to  1908. 

(l?)     The  Universities  from  1858  to  1908. 

In  1907  when  my  task  up  to  1906  was  within  sight  of 
completion,  I  was  unfortunately  seized  with  an  illness  which 
made  absolute  rest  for  several  months  imperative.  Recovered 
so  far  as  to  resume  work  I  decided  to  bring  my  narrative  to  a 
certain  extent  up  to  date,  and  proceeded  to  deal  with  what  is 
rather  the  politics  than  the  history  of  education — the  multi- 
tudinous changes  which  from  1906  to  1908  characterise  the 
subject  alike  in  School  and  University.  We  have  in  schools  an 
entire  change  in  the  character  of  inspection  and  in  the  training 
of  teachers;  in  the  universities  changes  in  the  curricula,  and 
demands  for  autonomy  arising  from  the  restiveness  of  General 
Councils,  under  conditions  which  made  the  framing  of  New 
Ordinances,  suitable  to  the  varying  needs  and  environments  of 
each  university,  exceedingly  difficult.  In  these  circumstances  it 
was  suggested  to  me  that  the  history  might  be  suitably  rounded 
off  up  to  date  by  experts  giving  in  short  appendixes  a  condensed 
account  of  what  has  been  done,  and  the  outlook  of  what  has 
been  proposed,  during  these  two  years.     I  have  been  fortunate  in 


PREFACE  vii 

securinjT  kind  friends  who  have  both  the  will  and  the  skill 
required,  each  appendix  appearini:^  under  the  name  of  the 
author. 

I  have  endeavoured  to  be  accurate  in  the  use  of  quotation 
marks,  and  in  verification  of  references  in  footnotes.  I  have 
revised  the  whole  carefully,  supplying  omissions,  and  removing 
what  could  with  advantage  be  spared,  and  it  is  perhaps  not 
unreasonable  to  expect  that  a  close  and  practical  acquaintance 
with  the  school  and  university  life  of  both  Scotland  and  England 
for  more  than  fifty  years  has  prevented  me  from  falling  into 
very  serious  inaccuracy  or  misconception. 

I  regret  that  Mr  Strong's  interesting  treatise  on  Secondary 
Education  in  Scotland  did  not  appear  till  the  whole  of  the 
present  work  was  in  type,  and  so  too  late  for  me  to  profit  by  it. 

I  have  to  acknowledge  with  hearty  thanks  the  readiness  with 
which  my  requests  for  information  and  for  the  revision  of  some 
of  the  proof  sheets  were  met  by  University  Ofificials — J.  M. 
Anderson  of  St  Andrews,  J.  Coutts  and  VV.  Innes  Addison  of 
Glasgow,  P.  J.  Anderson  of  Aberdeen,  and  Sir  Ludovic  Grant  of 
Edinburgh.  I  have  also  to  thank  C.  Stewart  of  Gordon's 
College,  Aberdeen,  and  Dr  Lauder  of  the  Edinburgh  and  East 
of  Scotland  Agricultural  College  for  useful  notes.  But  more 
than  to  any  other  my  very  special  thanks  are  due  to  Dr  Giles  of 
Emmanuel  College,  Cambridge,  for  most  careful  revision  of  all 
the  proofs  and  for  many  valuable  suggestions.  Lastly  a  well- 
deserved  acknowledgment  to  my  daughter  for  a  full  Index  is 
probably  not  out  of  place. 

J.  K. 


Edinhurgh, 

December  15,   1909. 


CONTENTS 

CHAPTER  I 

SCHOOLS    BEFORE    1560 

Pre-Reformation  schools.  Scottish  schools  not  advanced.  Students  went 
to  England  and  the  continent.  Church  schools.  Grammar  schools 
only  in  some  of  the  larger  towns.  Connection  between  church  and 
education.  High  reputation  of  Perth  Grammar  school.  School 
officials.  Desire  for  higher  education.  Social  position  of  the  Rector. 
Ayr  Burgh  school,  famous  then  as  now.  Emoluments  of  teachers. 
Cathedral,  Abbey  and  Collegiate  schools  religious  rather  than 
educational  in  character.  Sang  schools.  Libraries.  Languages  taught. 
Aberdeen  Grammar  school.     Summary.  p.  1 

CHAPTER  n 
FIRST   PERIOD   TO    1560.      UNIVERSITIES.      INTRODUCTORY 

A  Scots  College  in  Paris.  Universities  almost  strictly  ecclesiastical. 
Meaning  of  Universities.  Wandering  life  of  the  Medieval  student. 
Lawless  student  life  in  Paris.  Goliards.  Students  privileged  persons. 
Student  mendicancy  legalised.  Ecclesiastics  regularly  studied  Law  and 
Medicine.  Scots  College  documents  were  lost  or  destroyed  at  the 
time  of  the  French  Revolution.  p.  30 

CHAPTER  HI 

FIRST    PERIOD   TO    1560.      ST   ANDREWS    UNIVERSITY 

Foundation.  The  Schola  lUustris  the  germ  of  the  University.  Great 
rejoicing  at  reception  of  Papal  Bull.  James  I  Patron.  His  visit. 
Proposed  transference  to  Perth.  Bishop  Wardlasv  provides  buildings. 
Rivalry  of  competing  pedagogies.  Election  of  Rectors.  Students  of 
every  nationality  welcomed.  Learning  encouraged  by  Church  of  Rome. 
Colleges  of  St  Salvator,  St  Mary  and  St  Leonard.  Discipline  and 
regulations  monastic  rather  than  educational.  Cock-fighting  allowed. 
Famous  Professors  and  Students.  Buchanan,  Lyndsay,  Hamilton,  Knox, 
Major.  Great  variation  in  the  number  of  students  in  difterent  years. 
The  respective  aims  of  the  three  colleges.  Subjects  for  degree  of  M.A. 
Greek  when  taught  in  Scotland.  p.  40 


X  CONTENTS 

CHAPTER  IV 

FIRST   PERIOD   TO    1560.      GLASGOW   UNIVERSITY 

What  led  to  its  foundation.  In  1453  the  King  granted  a  charter  and 
certain  privileges.  Modelled  on  Bologna.  Most  promising  start  made 
the  Faculty  of  Arts  prominent.  No  endowment,  the  teaching  staff 
being  beneficed  clergymen.  First  building  lent  temporarily.  In  1460 
an  absolute  gift,  and  called  a  Ptedagogium.  Records  of  privileges, 
discipline  and  members.  Little  reference  to  course  of  study.  Gradual 
decadence  in  Faculty  of  Arts  and  general  laxity.  p.  53 

CHAPTER  V 
FIRST    PERIOD   TO    1560.      ABERDEEN    UNIVERSITY 

Foundation.  Elphinstone  and  James  IV.  Trade  and  education  in  north- 
east of  Scotland.  Conflicting  descriptions  as  to  education  and  social 
condition.  Elphinstone's  character.  Provision  for  salaries.  Subjects 
taught.  Trivium  and  quadrivium.  Members  of  King's  College. 
Chancellor  and  Rector  most  important.  Emoluments.  Regents. 
Dunbar's  Charter  and  influence.  Deterioration  after  Dunbar's  death. 
First  Bursary  competition.     Three  universities  have  much  in  common. 

p.  62 

CHAPTER  VI 

SECOND    PERIOD   (1560— 1696).      BURGH   AND   OTHER   SCHOOLS 

Greed  of  Nobility.  Church's  attitude  to  Education.  Knox's  scheme. 
Appointment  of  Masters.  Action  of  Town  Councils.  Burgh  and 
Parochial  Schools.  Examinations  thorough.  Holidays,  bent  silver, 
games.  Tenure  of  office.  Discipline  severe.  Decay  of  Music. 
Catechism.     Libraries.     Endowments.  p.  76 

CHAPTER  VII 

SECOND    PERIOD   (1560— 1696).      ST   ANDREWS    UNIVERSITY 

Book  of  Discipline.  Attitude  of  the  Nobles.  New  University  regulations. 
Rector's  duties.  Regenting  changed.  Knox's  ideal  not  realised.  Sad 
condition  of  University  in  1563.  Reformation  injurious.  Fewer 
students.  Two  Colleges  were  opposed  to,  one  favoured  the  Reforma- 
tion. Changes  in  subjects  taught.  Professorships  of  Hebrew.  Andrew 
Melville-  His  energy  successful.  Alternation  of  Presbyterianism  and 
Episcopacy.  P-  105 


CONTENTS  XI 


CHAPTER  VIII 


SECOND   PERIOD  (1560—1696).      GLASGOW   UNIVERSITY 

Bursaries  first  founded.  Action  of  Town  Council.  Slender  means  and 
small  staff.  Classes  broken  up.  Andrew  Melville  to  the  rescue. 
Changes  between  Regenting  and  the  professorial  system.  Snell 
exhibitions  founded.  Notu  ercctio.  Increase  of  graduates.  The 
Restoration  and  establishment  of  Episcopacy.  Visitations  partially 
effective.     Conditions  as  to  Graduation  slack.     Students  riotous. 

p.  116 

•  CHAPTER  IX 

SECOND    PERIOD  (1560— 1696).      ABERDEEN:    KING'S    COLLEGE 

Anderson  and  Leslie  forbidden  by  the  General  Assembly  to  preach.  Anderson 
and  four  colleagues  deposed.  Eight  disastrous  years.  Arbuthnot  a 
good  man  but  as  Principal  not  efficient.  Interchange  of  students 
between  Scottish  and  foreign  universities.  Andrew  Melville's  conference 
with  Arbuthnot.  Nova  Fuiidatio,  its  history  one  of  great  comple.xity. 
Theological  Chair  founded  by  Bishop  Forbes.  Union  of  King's  and 
Marischal  Colleges  in  1641  merely  nominal  for  20  years.  "Aberdeen 
Doctors."  How  the  student's  day  was  spent.  Great  jealousy  between 
the  colleges.     Reforms,  shortened  sessions  and  wearing  of  red  gowns. 

p.  125 

CHAPTER  X 
SECOND    PERIOD   (1560—1696).      MARISCHAL   COLLEGE 

Foundation,  endowment  and  management.  Faithlie  University.  Chairs 
of  mathematics  and  divinity.  College  distinctly  Protestant.  Hebrew 
lectureships.    Bursaries.    Lectureship  in  Humanity.     Courses  of  study. 

p.  138 

CHAPTER  XI 

SECOND    PERIOD   (1583 — 1696).      EDINBURGH    UNIVERSITY 

Origin  and  foundation.  Conflicting  accounts.  Lawson  chief  promoter. 
Charter  granted,  but  neither  studium  gcncrale  nor  university  mentioned. 
Without  the  name  it  did  the  work  of  a  university.  Building  and  first 
Rector  humble  and  unpretentious.  Regulations  as  to  work  of  medieval 
origin.  Graduation  recognised  as  valid.  Professorships  founded. 
Subjects  of  examination.  Sands  made  Principal.  Steady  advance  to 
University  Status.  Lord  Provost  chosen  Rector.  Relation  of  Barbers 
to  the  Church.  Corporation  of  Barber  Surgeons.  The  "Seal  of 
Cause"  and  Royal  College  of  Surgeons.  Incorporation  of  Physicians 
and  Apothecaries.  Royal  College  of  Physicians.  Conditions  of  patent 
granted.     Summary  of  136  years.  p.  144 


Xii  CONTENTS 

CHAPTER  XII 

THIRD    PERIOD    (1696— 1872).       BURGH    AND   OTHER    SCHOOLS 

Important  branches  not  taught.  Academies  largely  proprietary.  Burghs 
without  burgh  schools.  Holidays.  Discipline.  Teachers,  how  appointed. 
Tenure  of  office.  Pensions.  Greek  taught.  Music.  No  grants  for 
burgh  schools.  Poor  buildings.  Heriot's  and  Merchant  Company. 
Primary  Schools  up  to  1S72.     Educational  Institute.  p.  161 

CHAPTER   XIII 
THIRD   PERIOD   (1696— 1872).      S.P.C.K.   SCHOOLS 

Dearth  of  education  in  Highlands  and  Islands.  Origin  of  S.P.C.K.  Its 
growth  and  work.  Dame's  schools.  Steady  increase  in  usefulness. 
Gaelic  societies.  Statistics.  Effect  of  Disruption.  Number  of  schools 
reduced.  p.  181 

CHAPTER    XIV 

THIRD   PERIOD   (1696 — 1872).      GENERAL   ASSEMBLY   AND 

SESSIONAL    SCHOOLS 

Six  synods  unsupplicd  with  means  of  education.  Committee  formed. 
Salaries  and  qualifications  of  teachers.  Growth  in  numbers.  School 
libraries.  Further  development.  Gradual  discontinuance  of  church 
schools.  p.  192 

CHAPTER  XV 
THIRD    PERIOD   (1696 — I  872).      PARISH    SCHOOLS 

John  Knox's  scheme  basis  of  Scottish  education.  Original  high  aim  of  schools. 
Want  of  money.  Civil  and  religious  discords.  Co-operation  between 
church  and  school.  Desire  for  education.  Institution  of  Government 
Inspection  and  grants.  Salaries  increased.  Small  number  of  inspectors. 
Revised  code.  Demoralising  effect  on  teachers  and  taught.  Separate 
code  for  Scotland.  Reminiscences  of  old  Scottish  schools.  School- 
masters' widows'  fund.  P-  19° 


\ 


CONTENTS  Xlll 


ClIAFTER    XVI 


THIRD    PERIOD   (1696— 1864).      STOW   AND   TRAINING   OF 

TEACHERS 

Systematic  training  of  teachers  at  home  and  abroad.  David  Stow.  Sabbath 
schools  in  Glasgow.  System  based  on  experience.  Bell  and  Lancaster. 
Glasgow  Infant  School  Society.  Glasgow  Educational  Society. 
Carlyle  offers  himself  as  Rector.  His  view  on  training.  Model 
schools  instituted.  Normal  Seminary.  Spread  of  Stow's  system.  Effect 
of  Disruption.  Episcopal  Training  College.  Pupil-teachers.  Leaving 
Certificate  Examination.  P-  207 

CHAPTER    XVII 
THIRD    PERIOD   (1696— 1858).      ST   ANDREWS    UNIVERSITY 

Features  common  to  all  Scottish  Universities  in  17th  and  i8th  centuries. 
Latin.  Regents.  Professors.  Bursals.  St  Andrews.  Maitland  Anderson's 
matriculation  rolls.  Chancellor  and  Vice-Chancellor.  Union  of 
colleges.  Course  of  study.  Election  of  Rector.  Chairs  founded. 
French.  "Princely  Chandos."  Bursaries.  Prayers.  Public  worship. 
Buildings  and  funds.  P-  214 

CHAPTER   XVIII 

THIRD    PERIOD   (1696— 1858).      GLASGOW   UNIVERSITY 

University  staff.  Appointment  of  Professors.  Latin  teaching.  Attempt  at 
improvement.  New  Chairs.  Royal  Grants.  Patriotism.  Degree  of 
M.D.  Better  regulations.  Hutchcson  Institution.  Salaries.  Common 
table.  Reed's  account  of  the  university.  Infirmary.  Donations. 
Increase  in  attendance.  Medicine.  New  Chairs.  English  versus 
Scottish  medical  training.    Better  times.    Management.  p.  226 

CHAPTER   XIX 

THIRD   PERIOD   (1696  — 1858).      ABERDEEN    UNIVERSITY 

Unsatisfactory  condition  in  Aberdeen.  Dilapidated  buildings,  negligence, 
and  want  of  funds.  New  Chairs.  Bickerings.  Queen  Anne's  gift. 
Royal  commission.  Dr  James  Eraser's  gift.  Eminent  Scotsmen.  Secular 
rather  than  religious  trend  of  thought.  Regenting.  Laxity  in  Bursars' 
work.  Residence  enforced.  Examination  paper  on  medicine.  Medical 
education.  Arts  curriculum.  Election  of  Rector.  Valuable  gifts. 
Permanent   union    of  colleges.     Appendix   A.     Appendix    B. 

p.  237 


xiv  CONTENTS 

CHAPTER   XX 

THIRD   PERIOD   (1696— 1858).      MARISCHAL   COLLEGE 

Universities  become  institutions  of  state.  Gifts  towards  buildings.  Chairs 
founded.  Duties  of  Principal.  Progress.  Curriculum.  Proposed 
union  falls  through.  Academic  activity.  Graduation.  Parliamentary 
Commission.  Curriculum.  College  rebuilt.  Union  at  last  with  King's 
College.     Appendix.     Graduation  Thesis.     Programme  of  lectures. 

p.  249 

CHAPTER    XXI 

THIRD    PERIOD   (1696— 1858).      EDINBURGH    UNIVERSITY 

"Cardinal  Carstares"  royal  grant.  Legal  instruction.  Town  Council  and 
Professors.  Educational  progress  during  Restoration  and  Revolution. 
Arts  curriculum.  Graduation  steadily  declines.  New  Chairs.  Incorpora- 
tion of  Surgeons  and  Physicians.  Great  activity  in  Edinburgh  medical 
world.  Medical  graduation.  -Science.  Industrial  museum.  Faculty 
of  Divinity.  Relations  between  Town  Council  and  Senatus.  Foundation 
of  new  building.  Hamilton  and  Wilson.  Royal  Commission.  New 
ordinances.  Many  disputes.  Entrance  examination.  Effect  of  Dis- 
ruption. P-  257 


CHAPTER   XX n 

FOURTH  PERIOD  (1872— 1908).   PRIMARY  AND  OTHER 
SCHOOLS  AND  CODE  CHANGES 

Many  changes.  Area  of  educational  field  widened.  Universities  training 
versus  secondary  and  higher  grade  schools.  Dick  Bequest.  Competi- 
tion and  presentation  Bursars.  Latin.  Graduation  in  Aberdeen  and 
elsewhere.  James  Dick.  Object  of  I5equest.  Important  changes 
introduced.  High  standard  attained.  Professor  Laurie  and  the 
Bequest.  Satisfactory  results.  Milne  Bequest.  Original  conditions 
altered.     Philip  Bequest.  P-  274 


CONTENTS  XV 

CHAPTER   XXIII 

FOURTH    PERIOD  (1872— 1906).      S.P.C.K.   SCHOOLS 

Bursaries.  Study  of  Gaelic.  Area  covered  by  scheme  of  Bursaries. 
Schools  in  Highlands  and  Islands.  Changes  effected  in  body  of 
Governors.  Grants  and  bursaries.  Society's  high  aim,  and  good 
record.  P-  291 

CHAPTER    XXIV 
FOURTH    PERIOD   (1872— 1907).      TR.UNING   COLLEGES 

Glasgow,  Edinburgh,  Aberdeen.  Roman  Catholic  College  for  women  in 
Glasgow.  St  George's  College  for  secondary  teachers  in  Edinburgh. 
Pupil-teachers  and  training-college  students  before  and  since  1873. 
University  teaching  combined  with  normal  school  training.  Sources 
for  supply  of  teachers.  Provincial  committees.  Junior  and  senior 
students.     Pupil-teacher  system.  P-  294 

CHAPTER   XXV 
FOURTH    PERIOD   (1872 — 1908).      SECONDARY   SCHOOLS 

Burgh  and  grammar  schools  under  school-board  management.  Parish 
schools  and  secondary  education.  Lord  Balfour  and  higher  education. 
Anomalous  position  of  secondary  schools.  Merchant  Company  of 
Edinburgh  pioneers  in  reform.  Monastic  system  condemned.  Hospitals 
converted  into  day  schools.  Steady  growth,  good  results.  Allan  Glen's 
school  in  Glasgow.  Glasgow  and  West  of  Scotland  Technical  College. 
Robert  Gordon's  Hospital  and  School  of  Art,  Aberdeen.  Edinburgh 
High  School,  Academy  etc.  Fettes  College.  Bursaries.  Educational 
Endowments  Act.  Craik  and  secondary  education.  Leaving  Certificate 
Examination.  Success  due  to  Sir  Henry  Craik.  Dr  Struthers'  report 
in  1906.  Training  of  teachers.  Technical  Schools  Act  of  1887. 
Equivalent  grant  and  its  distribution.  Character  and  functions  of 
higher  grade  schools.  Residue  grant.  Local  Taxation  account  (Scotland) 
Act  of  1892.  Distribution  of  funds.  Science  and  Art.  Central  institu- 
tions. Continuation  classes.  Links  with  central  institutions.  Over- 
pressure checked  as  far  as  possible.  P-  300 


XVI 


CONTENTS 


CHAPTER   XXVI 
FOURTH    PERIOD   (1858 — 1908).      UNIVERSITIES 

Two  landmarks  in  the  history  of  Scottish  universities.  Act  of  1858,  its 
aims  and  results.  Degree  of  M.A.  New  Chairs.  Junior  classes. 
Preliminary  examination.  Widened  curriculum.  Subjects  for  M.A. 
degree,  and  Science  degrees.  New  constitution  of  university  court. 
Students'  representative  council.  Affiliation  of  new  colleges.  Privy 
Council.  Act  of  1889,  extensive  investigations.  New  method  adopted. 
Passing  of  ordinances  difficult.  Medical  course  lengthened.  Classes 
for  women  in  arts  and  medicine.  Degree  of  LL.B.  Degree  of  B.L. 
Graduation  in  Divinity.  Degree  of  B.D.  Honorary  degrees  of  D.D. 
and  LL.D.  Increase  in  students  and  subjects  of  instruction.  Additional 
lecturers  and  assistants.  Bursary  regulations.  Double  marks  for 
English,  Latin,  Greek  and  Mathematics.  Patronage  of  Professorships. 
Pensions  and  compensations.  Fees  and  emoluments.  New  Chairs. 
Graduation  in  Music.  Queen  Margaret  College,  Glasgow.  Original 
research.  Carnegie's  gift.  Degrees  of  D.Sc,  D.Phil,  and  D.Litt. 
St  Andrews  and  Dundee.  Degrees  in  applied  Science.  Extension  of 
universities  by  affiliation.  St  Mungo's  College,  Glasgow.  Heriot- 
Watt  College.  Agricultural  Education.  Agricultural  Colleges.  Edin- 
burgh and  East  of  Scotland.  West  of  Scotland.  Aberdeen  and  North  of 
Scotland.  Statistics  concerning  University  of  St  Andrews,  University  of 
Glasgow,  Queen  Margaret  College,  University  of  Aberdeen,  University 
of  Edinburgh.  p.  333 


APPENDIXES 


I.  Primary  Schools,  Mr  Watson 

II.  Training  Colleges,  Dr  Morgan 

III.  Secondary  Education,  Mr  Dougall 

IV.  Technical  Education,  Dr  J.  G.  Kerr 
V.  Universities,  Professor  Darroch     . 

Index  


392 
396 
402 
408 
413 

419 


CHAPTER    I 

SCHOOLS   BEFORE    1560 

"^  There  is  not  so  far  as  I  have  seen  any  exact  record  of 
education  in  Scotland  earlier  than  the  12th  century.  It  is 
however  not  only  a  fair  but  a  necessary  inference,  that  there 
must  have  been  schools  of  some  kind,  probably  only  those  in 
connection  with  monasteries,  from  the  time  of  the  settlement  of 
Columba  in  lona  in  563.  The  service  of  the  Church,  which  was 
conducted  in  Latin,  must  have  required  that  the  boys  and 
youths  who  took  part  in  the  service,  or  who  were  being  trained 
as  clerics,  got  more  or  less  instruction  in  that  language.  The 
absence  of  books  also  required  that  they  should  be  taught 
writing  with  a  view  to  copying  the  Scriptures  and  religious 
books. 

We  are  on  perfectly  safe  ground  in  stating  that  between 
1 183  and  1248  grants  of  lands,  houses,  chapels,  tithes,  and 
schools  were  made  or  confirmed  to  different  parts  of  the  country 
by  no  fewer  than  six  Popes,  ranging  from  Lucius  to  Innocent  IV, 
all  for  the  promotion  of  education. 

The  fostering  of  education  was  not  left  to  the  Popes  alone. 
In  the  Chamberlain  and  Exchequer  rolls  we  find  abundant 
evidence  of  the  interest  shown  by  the  Scottish  kings  during  the 
whole  of  the  14th  century.  Grant  after  grant  is  recorded  as 
being  paid  by  the  King's  Treasurer  and  Chamberlain  to  meet  the 
expense  of  food  and  clothing  for  certain  poor  scholars.  It  is  fair 
to  infer  from  this,  that  the  schools  attended  by  these  poor 
scholars  were  doing  good  work.  It  may  be  presumed  that  they 
were  chosen  for  this  royal  favour  because  of  their  industry  and 
ability.  Selection  would  have  been  impossible,  had  the  teacher 
been  half-hearted  or  the  pupil  indolent. 

K.  E.  1 


2  SCHOOLS   BEFORE    1560  [CH. 

That  the  teaching,  though  probably  solid  and  faithful,  was 
not  highly  advanced  is  shown  by  the  fact  that  those  who  aimed 
at  the  higher  reaches  of  education  were  obliged  to  seek  it  in 
the  oldest  of  the  Oxford  Colleges — University,  Merton  and 
Balliol — or  abroad  in  France,  Switzerland,  Germany  and  Italy, 
for  Scotland  at  that  time  had  no  great  schools  of  her  own. 
Many  did  so  with  the  help  of  grants  from  our  sovereigns,  and 
returned  to  be  masters  of  schools  in  their  native  land.  The 
absence  of  schools  in  Scotland  in  which  a  liberal  education  could 
be  completed,  the  inconvenience  of  foreign  travel  for  this 
purpose,  and  the  rapidly  growing  desire  for  advanced  education 
led  to  the  foundation  of  the  three  earliest  Scottish  universities, 
St  Andrews  in  141 1,  Glasgow  in  1450,  and  Aberdeen  in  1494. 

Before  the  Reformation  there  were  schools  in  most  of  the 
chief  towns,  but,  north  of  Aberdeen,  only  in  Elgin  and  Kirkwall 
which  were  cathedral  towns.  In  the  third  report  of  the  Schools 
Commission \  dated  December  1867,  we  are  told  that  "schools 
for  Latin,  to  which  were  subsequently  added  '  Lecture '  schools 
for  English,  existed  in  the  chief  towns  of  Scotland  from  a  very 
early  period."  We  have  authentic  notice  of  a  school  in  Aberdeen 
in  1 1 24.  The  schools  of  Perth  and  Stirling  were  in  existence 
in  1 173,  and  charters  quoted  in  Chalmers'  Caledonia  mention 
other  schools,  both  in  the  twelfth  and  the  subsequent  century. 
It  would  serve  no  good  purpose  to  enumerate  them  all,  but  we 
may  specify  St  Andrews  whose  school  was  under  the  charge  of 
a  rector  in  1233  ;  Aberdeen  and  Ayr^  of  which  we  have  notices 
in  1262  and  1264;  Montrose,  which  had  the  honour  of  receiving 
a  small  endowment  from  Robert  the  Bruce  in  1329'*,  and 
speaking  generally  it  may  be  said  that  all  the  chief  towns,  and 
many  that  have  since  sunk  into  obscurity,  had  schools,  such  as 
they  were,  before  the  beginning  of  the  i6th  century.  The 
statute  of  the  Scottish  Parliament  in  the  reign  of  James  IV 
(1496)  which  ordains  that  "barons  and  freeholders  who  were  of 

^  Vol.  I,  pp.  I,  2. 

^  Ayr  also  is  mentioned  as  having  a  school  in  1233. 

'  The  amount  contributed  was  only  20  shillings  and  scarcely  attains  to  the 
dignity  of  an  endowment.  But  it  may  be  added  that  in  the  time  of  Elizabeth  £&  was 
considered  sufficient  to  endow  a  Hebrew  Lecturer  or  a  Fellowship  in  Emmanuel 
College,  Cambridge. 


l]  I'RAE-REFORMATION    SCHOOLS  3 

substance  should  put  their  eldest  sons  or  heirs  to  the  schools 
from  their  beinjr  eight  or  nine  years  of  age,  and  to  remain  at 
the  grammar  schools  till  they  be  competently  founded  and  have 
perfect  Latin  "  is  conclusive  and  satisfactory  proof  on  this  point'. 
It  is  satisfactory  proof  that  an  act  was  passed  for  compulsory 
education  at  grammar  schools  of  the  eldest  sons  or  heirs  of 
barons  and  men  of  substance,  but  only  for  them.  The  act 
makes  no  provision  for  girls  or  the  children  of  people  on  a  lower 
level  than  men  of  substance.  This  appears  in  the  further 
provision,  viz.  that  they  must  remain  three  years  at  the  schools 
of  art  and  'jure'  so  as  to  have  knowledge  of  the  laws,  and  that 
justice  may  reign  universally  throughout  the  realm,  and  that 
sheriffs  and  judges  may  have  knowledge  to  do  justice,  so  that 
the  poor  people  should  have  no  need  to  apply  to  the  King's 
principal  auditors  for  every  small  injury".  Defaulters  in  respect 
of  this  act  were  liable  to  a  penalty  of  twenty  pounds.  There  is 
no  evidence  of  the  enforcement  of  the  penalty.  It  is  clear  that 
the  statute,  striking  proof  as  it  is  of  the  King's  wisdom  and 
foresight,  and  such  as  has  no  parallel  in  any  other  country  at 
this  early  period,  while  beneficently  providing  for  the  convenience 
of  the  poorer  people,  left  their  education  untouched. 

These  schools  were  under  the  direction  of  the  Church, 
and  were  closely  connected  with  the  cathedrals,  monasteries 
and  other  religious  establishments  of  the  country.  Thus  the 
monks  of  Dunfermline  were  directors  of  the  schools  of 
Perth  and  Stirling-' ;  Ayr  School  was  connected  with  the  Church 
of  John  the  Baptist^ ;  the  monks  of  Kelso  were  directors  of 
the  schools  in  the  county  of  Roxburgh.  Our  first  authentic 
notice  of  the  schools  of  Dundee  is  a  document  in  the 
register    of    the    See    of    Brechin    in    1434.       In    that    year,    a 

^  Acts  of  Scottish  P.-irliament,  1496,  c.  3,  il,  238. 

'■*  It  is  to  be  noted  that  all  sheriffships  were  at  this  time  hereditary.  The 
Cheynes  of  Ravenscraiji  near  I'eterhead  were  sheriffs  of  Banffshire,  and,  in  order  to 
have  power  of  pit  and  gallows  over  their  tenants,  got  the  parish  of  St  Fergus  and 
their  estate  of  Fetteraiigus  ileclared  to  he  part  of  Banffshire  as  it  still  remains  marked 
in  the  map.     Such  an  education  as  that  described  was  very  necessary  for  a  henditary 

sheriff. 

3  Kt-gistrum  dc  Dunfcnnlyn,  no.  93,  p.  56. 
*  Biirgh  Records  of  Ayr. 

I — .2 


4  SCHOOLS   BEFORE    1560  [CH. 

priest  ventured  to  teach  without  the  authority  of  the  Chancellor, 
and  was  in  consequence  summoned  before  the  Bishop,  and 
after  duly  acknowledging  his  offence  was  deprived  of  his  office. 
The  burgh  of  Edinburgh  provided  a  school-house,  and  paid  a 
salary  to  its  teacher  at  least  as  early  as  1500,  but  the  High 
School  itself  was  dependent  on  the  Abbey  of  Holyrood^ 

"  The  Glasgow  Grammar  School,  which  existed  early  in  the 
14th  century,  was  dependent  on  the  cathedral  church,  and  the 
Chancellor  of  the  diocese  had  the  appointment  of  masters  and 
superintendence  of  education  in  the  city^  An  offending  priest 
in  1494,  who  had  presumed  to  teach  grammar  and  other  branches 
without  due  authority  from  the  Chancellor,  was  summoned 
before  the  Bishop,  and  ordered  to  desist.  In  Aberdeen  the 
early  usage  was  as  follows  :  The  Town  Council  presented  the 
master  to  his  office,  subject  to  the  approval  of  the  Chancellor 
of  the  Bishop  who  instituted  the  presentee.  We  find  frequent 
notices  of  this  from  141 8  downwards.  The  terms  of  the  appoint- 
ment of  rector  in  that  year  are  in  substance  as  follows :  '  The 
Chancellor  of  the  Church  of  Aberdeen  to  all  the  faithful, 
greeting :  Inasmuch  as  the  institution  to  the  office  of  school- 
master belongs  to  me  as  Chancellor,  and  an  honest,  prudent  and 
discreet  man  has  been  presented  to  me  by  the  Provost  and 
Council  of  the  burgh,  and  on  examination  has  been  found  duly 
qualified,  I  have  by  letter  of  collation  instituted  him  in  the 
office  for  the  whole  term  of  his  life!  Incidentally  the  last  words 
{pro  toto  tempore  suce  vitce)  are  important  as  showing  the  tenure 
of  office  in  those  early  times  in  Aberdeen*." 

The  attempts  of  the  Church  to  possess  the  exclusive 
patronage  of  the  schools  were  not  always  successful.  In 
Brechin  in  1485  a  dispute  on  this  subject  between  the  Duke  of 
Ross  and  the  Bishop  was  settled  by  the  Crown  in  favour  of  the 
Duke,  and  a  warning  was  given  that  none  of  the  King's  lieges 
should  "  take  upon  hand  to  make  any  manner  of  persecution  or 
following  of  the  said  matter  at  the  Court  of  Rome,  since  it 
pertains  to  lay  patronage." 

*  Miscellany  of  Spalding  Club,  vol.  v,  p.  69. 

*  Regis t rum  Epis.  Glasg.  I,  no.  211,  p.  170. 

*  State  intervention  in  Education.     De  Montmorency,  p.  113. 


I]       THE  CHURCH  AND  THE  GRAMMAR  SCHOOLS        5 

There  is  little  definite  evidence  that  a  general  education 
apart  from  those  pupils  who  were  being  trained  for  the  Church 
was  aimed  at  during  the  12th  and  13th  centuries.  Mr  Grant  in 
his  history  of  the  burgh  schools  mentions  an  incident  recorded 
by  Reginald  of  Durham  from  which  a  general  and  lower 
education  may  be  inferred.  This  school  was  kept  in  a  church 
on  Tweedside  "  for  the  benefit  of  the  neighbourhood."  One  of 
the  pupils  who  did  not  appreciate  the  benefit,  threw  the  key  of 
the  church  into  a  deep  pool  in  the  river,  hoping  to  escape  "the 
slavery  of  learning."  A  lad  in  training  for  clerical  service  and 
under  the  power  of  the  priests  would  scarcely  have  dared  to 
seek  this  remedy.  The  same  Reginald,  speaking  of  a  school 
kept  in  the  church  of  Norham,  says  that  "  it  is  now  a  common 
practice."  A  school  "  for  the  benefit  of  the  neighbourhood " 
could  scarcely  mean  anything  else  than  a  school  in  which  others 
than  those  being  trained  for  the  Church  were  educated.  We 
find  also  evidence  of  laymen's  children,  probably  only  of  noble 
birth,  being  educated  as  boarders  in  the  same  schools  as  young 
ecclesiastics. 

In  the  burgh  records  of  Edinburgh  of  date  1498  we  have 
what  seems  tolerably  clear  evidence  of  the  existence  of  schools 
other  than  those  under  church  management.  Owing  to  the 
prevalence  of  the  plague  the  municipal  authorities  ordained  that 
all  schools  should  '  scail,'  and  that  landward  children  should  go 
home  and  remain  there  till  God  provide  remedy.  We  know 
that  at  this  time  the  Grammar  School  and  the  Canongate  School 
were  in  existence,  but  all  would  probably  not  have  been  used,  if 
these  were  the  only  schools.  What  was  the  character  of  these 
other  schools  is  not  shown,  but  they  were  probabl)' '  lecture  '  and 
'dame'  schools,  in  which  only  elementary  subjects  were  taught, 
and  with  which,  on  that  account,  the  magistrates  did  not^  think 
it  necessary  to  interfere.  At  the  time  of  the  Reformation  the 
Grammar  School  of  Perth  was  the  most  celebrated  in  the 
kingdom,  and  was  attended  by  the  sons  of  noblemen  and 
gentlemen  who  were  boarded  with  Mr  Row  and  instructed  in 
Greek  and  Hebrew^ 

This  slight  and  very  general  sketch  of  the  extent  to  which 

^   M'^Crie's  Life  of  Knox,  i,  p.  294. 


6  SCHOOLS   BEFORE    1560  [CH. 

schools  were  in  existence  before  the  Reformation  may  be 
appropriately  followed  by  some  account  of  the  school  authorities 
on  whose  action  and  functions  the  success  of  the  school  mainly 
depended. 

The  officials  of  the  schools  under  church  management  were 
Ferleyn,  Master,  and  Scoloc.  The  Ferleyn  was  an  official  of 
great  dignity  and  importance.  Mr  Joseph  Robertson  has,  with 
characteristic  thoroughness  and  accuracy,  shown  his  position 
with  regard  to  both  school  and  university^  "  What  the 
Chancellor  became  in  the  English  and  Scoto-English  churches 
from  about  the  12th  century,  the  Ferleiginn  seems  to  have 
been  in  the  Irish  and  Scoto-Irish  churches  of  an  earlier  age." 
By  derivation  it  is  said  to  mean  '  Man  of  learning.'  It  was 
his  duty  to  attend  to  the  transcription  of  manuscripts,  and 
copying  of  deeds,  and  to  rule  or  teach  the  schools.  In  at  least 
one  instance,  the  same  person  was  both  Archdeacon  and  Ferleyn, 
viz.  in  St  Andrews.  "  He  had,"  says  Mr  Robertson,  "  the  right  of 
election  of  the  Master  of  the  Schools  of  the  Metropolitan  City'^. 
He  was  conservator  of  the  privileges  of  the  university,  and  to 
him  belonged  the  office  of  investiture  of  all  persons  presented  to 
benefices  within  the  diocese  of  St  Andrews^  The  nomination 
of  the  Archdeacon  was  with  the  King,  and  it  needs  but  to 
consider  the  list  of  those  who  held  the  office,  to  see  what  its 
dignity  and  importance  must  have  been,  and  to  be  satisfied  of 
the  care  which  was  generally  taken  to  choose  men  of  learning 
for  its  duties." 

The  social  position  of  the  master  or  rector  of  a  school,  and 
the  high  estimation  in  which  the  office  was  held,  may  be  gathered 
from  his  being  associated  with  persons  of  the  highest  rank  in  the 
State,  in  the  Church,  and  even  with  the  sons  of  kings,  for  the 
settlement  of  disputes  about  the  ownership  of  church  property. 
Instances  of  this  are  recorded  in  authentic  documents.  The 
rectors  of  Perth,  Ayr,  and  South  Berwick  are  found  associated 
with  high  church  dignitaries  as  judges  in  disputes  of  this  kind. 
Nor  were  their  functions  as  prominent  citizens  confined  to 
questions  of  church  property.     They  were  much  in  evidence  in 

^  Miscellany  of  Spalding  Club,  V,   72 — 77. 

2  Act.  Pari.  Scot,   iv,  517.  ='  Ibid.   493 — 4. 


l]  SOCIAL   POSITION    OF   SCHOOLMASTERS  7 

cases  of  political  importance.  Among  the  guarantors  for  the 
payment  of  the  ransom  for  David  II,  a  prisoner  in  England,  we 
find  the  rector  of  the  school  of  Cupar.  In  business  transactions 
involving  the  use  of  written  documents,  the  rector  was  doubtless 
found  to  be  a  most  valuable  person,  at  a  time  when  writing  was 
almost  entirely  unknown  even  to  many  of  the  nobility.  His 
importance  however  v/as  not  confined  to  these  very  early  times. 
Up  to  the  Reformation  he  holds  a  prominent  position  as  a  public 
man.  In  the  i6th  century,  we  find  him  appointed  a  deputy 
for  electing  the  Lord  Rector  of  Glasgow  University,  and  as  an 
examiner  of  its  candidates  for  graduation.  Even  the  Reforma- 
tion, which  brought  about  so  many  other  changes,  did  not  affect 
the  social  standing  of  the  rector.  In  1606  we  find  that  John  Ray, 
and  in  1630  Thomas  Crawford — both  Professors  of  Humanity 
in  the  University  of  Edinburgh — considered  it  promotion  ta 
vacate  their  chairs  and  become  rectors  of  the  High  School — a 
remarkable  change  in  the  relative  dignity  of  professor  and 
rector.  The  status  of  the  Scottish  rector  seems  to  have  been 
saved  from  the  comparative  degradation  which  fell  to  the  lot  of 
the  proctor  or  rector  in  Oxford  and  Cambridge.  The  humble 
character  of  his  vocation,  and  the  crude  ideas  of  discipline  then 
prevalent,  may  be  gathered  from  his  being  presented,  on  his  ap- 
pointment to  a  mastership  in  the  college,  with  a  rod  with  which 
he  had  to  make  public  exhibition  of  his  skill  in  flagellation'. 
"  Then  shall  the  Bedell  purvay  for  every  master  in  Gramer  a 
shrewde  Boy,  whom  the  master  in  Gramer  shall  bete  openlye  in 
the  Scolys,  and  the  master  in  Gramer  shall  give  the  Boye  a 
Grote  for  hys  Labour,  and  another  Grote  to  hym  that  provydeth 
the  Rode  and  the  Palmer  etc.  dc  singulis.  And  thus  endythe 
the  Acte  in  that  Facultye."  It  is  evident  from  this  passage  that 
skill  in  whipping  was  an  important  qualification  for  the  office  of 
master.  Shrewde  and  Labour  perhaps  require  explanation. 
Shrewde  formerly  meant  mischievous  or  malicious.  Hence  the 
purvaying  of  a  boy  who,  if  not  at  present  guilty  of  any 
misconduct,  was  sure  to  be  so  sooner  or  later.  Labour  often 
occurs  in  the  sen.se  of  suffering,     A  ship,  e.g.,  labours  in  a  storm. 

^  Peacock's  C/niv.  of  Cambridge  Observations,  Appendix  A,  p.  xxxvii. 


8  SCHOOLS   BEFORE    1560  [CH. 

The  boy  in  question  suffers  from  the  rod,  and  the  account  is 
squared  by  his  receiving  a  groat  for  his  suffering. 

Erasmus,  speaking  of  England,  says  "grammarians  of  his  time 
are  '  a  race  of  all  men  the  most  miserable,'  who  grow  old  at  their 
work  surrounded  by  herds  of  boys,  deafened  by  continual  uproar, 
and  poisoned  by  a  close  and  foul  atmosphere ;  satisfied  however 
so  long  as  they  can  overawe  the  terrified  throng  by  the  terrors  of 
their  look  and  speech,  and,  while  they  cut  them  to  pieces  with 
ferule,  birch,  and  thong,  gratify  their  own  merciless  natures  at 
pleasure."  Similarly,  in  a  letter  written  somewhat  later,  he  tells 
us  what  difficulty  he  encountered  when  he  sought  to  find  at 
Cambridge  a  second  master  for  Colet's  newly  founded  school  at 
St  Paul's,  and  how  a  college  don,  whom  he  consulted  on  the 
subject,  sneeringly  rejoined — "  Who  would  put  up  with  the  life  of 
a  schoolmaster  who  could  get  his  living  in  any  other  way\" 

That  this  was  said  by  Erasmus  early  in  the  i6th  century, 
furnishes  a  very  striking  contrast  to  the  social  position  of  the 
master  of  the  Scottish  grammar  school  of  the  same  period.  It 
is  surprising,  in  view  of  this  description  of  the  grammarian  in 
England,  that  there  seems  to  have  been  an  adequate  supply  of 
candidates  for  scholastic  vacancies. 

The  relation  of  the  scoloc  to  the  school  is  not  quite  so  clear. 
Scolocs  are  first  heard  of  in  1265,  when  reference  is  made  to  the 
scoloc  lands  of  Ellon,  the  old  capital  of  the  earldom  of  Buchan. 
That  scoloc  and  scholar  are  identical  is  evident  from  contem- 
porary documents.  The  scoloc,  however,  was  not  simply  a 
pupil.  He  was  in  some  sense  an  official,  a  lower  grade  of 
churchman,  probably  of  humble  origin,  a  pupil  who,  by  industry 
and  ability,  had  established  a  claim  to  some  share  in  ecclesiastical 
functions  in  the  absence  of  the  priest,  and  had  acquired  a  personal 
interest  in  the  endowment  left  for  his  maintenance.  The  scoloc 
lands  had,  in  the  14th  century,  shared  the  fate  of  other  religious 
foundations,  the  greater  part  being  seized  by  laymen  and  dealt 
with  by  them  as  an  inheritance,  the  smaller  portion  by  ecclesiastics, 
who  undertook,  and,  presumably  with  more  or  less  efficiency, 
discharged  the  duties  originally  contemplated  by  the  endowment. 
By  the  middle  of  the  i6th  century  the  designation  'scoloc  lands  ' 

^  Mullinger,  vol.  I,  345. 


l]  EARLY   SCHOOL   ENDOWMENTS  9 

had  become  obsolete.  They  soon  ceased  to  be  closely  connected 
with  education,  and  were  held  by  persons  more  like  Crofters 
than  scholars. 

While  the  records  bear  that  Peebles  was  the  first  burgh  that 
took  in  1464  the  appointment  of  the  master  out  of  the  hands  of 
the  Church  and  into  its  own,  it  does  not  appear  that  education 
flourished  under  its  superintendence.  For  eighty  years  subse- 
quent to  1475,  the  burgh  records  are  blank  in  respect  of  education. 
Except  that  the  two  masters  appointed  between  1464  and  1475 
were  churchmen,  there  is  no  clear  evidence  that  the  schools  to 
which  they  were  appointed  were  schools  for  advanced  instruction, 
though  they  probably  were.  In  1555,  "the  bailies  are  to  provide 
the  teacher  with  a  chamber,  where  it  may  be  got  most  con- 
veniently, and  also  with  the  use  of  the  tolbooth  to  teach  his  bairns 
reading  and  writing  English."  It  would  appear  from  this,  that 
if  the  school  was  a  grammar  school,  it  was  one  to  which  an 
elementary  or  'lecture'  school  was  attached,  a  very  unusual 
arrangement.  Next  year  Sir  William  Tunno^  was  appointed 
schoolmaster,  and  the  town  became  bound  to  "find  him  an  honest 
chamber  at  their  expense  with  chimney,  closet  and  necessaries 
except  furnishing-."  This  arrangement  did  not  last,  for  in 
January  following  another  master  was  appointed  to  teach  the 
grammar  school  and  to  provide  a  chamber  for  himself.  This  is 
the  first  occasion  on  which  the  designation  'Grammar  School' 
occurs  in  the  Peebles  Records. 

During  the  next  five  or  six  years  the  educational  condition 
of  Peebles  was  not  satisfactory.  There  were  several  changes  of 
teachers,  about  one  of  whom  there  is  the  following  entry,  "  if  he 
teaches  the  bairns  more  diligently,  wherethrough  they  conceive 
more  wisdom  nor  they  did  of  before,  the  town  to  have  considera- 
tion thereof."  With  regard  to  another,  "the  Council  ordains 
the  master  to  wait  on  the  bairns  and  not  to  go  hunting  nor  other 
pleasures  in  time  coming,  without  licence  of  the  aldermen,  failing 
which,  he  will  be  deposed*."  Such  entries  as  these,  combined 
with  the  fact  that  there  was  no  building  set  apart  for  the  school, 

'  Sir  presumably  means  Doininus  or  B.A. 

-  Burgh  Records  of  Peebles. 

»  Ibid.  *  Ibid. 


lO  SCHOOLS   BEFORE    1560  [CH. 

and  that  change  of  teachers  was  frequent,  suggest  a  doubt  of  the 
efficiency  of  the  management  and  the  expediency  of  their 
dispensing  with  ecclesiastical  interference. 

It  is  interesting  to  note  the  varying  fortunes  of  towns  at 
different  stages  of  their  history,  from  both  an  educational  and 
commercial  point  of  view.  Ayr  is  perhaps  one  of  the  most 
notable  in  this  respect.  It  was  early  in  the  field  as  having  in 
1233  an  important  school  now  represented  by  the  Ayr  Academy. 
It  is  therefore  much  more  ancient  than  any  of  the  Scottish 
universities  and  150  years  older  than  Winchester  the  oldest  of 
the  most  famous  English  public  schools.  The  master  was 
appointed  a  member  of  a  Papal  Commission  to  settle  a  dispute 
between  Gilbert  of  Renfrew  and  the  Abbot  of  Paisley,  about  a 
piece  of  land  to  which  both  laid  claim.  It  was  also  one  of  the 
first  to  have  its  school  recognised  as  a  burgh  school,  and,  to  that 
extent,  freed  from  ecclesiastical  government.  Ten  years  before 
the  Reformation,  the  Town  Council  appointed  the  schoolmaster, 
though  elsewhere,  as  a  rule,  magistrates  bore  the  expense,  but 
had  no  share  in  the  management  or  appointment  of  the  teacher. 
For  several  succeeding  centuries,  there  are  unfortunately  no 
records  of  the  success  of  the  school,  nor  is  there  any  explanation 
of  their  disappearance,  but  it  may  be  safely  inferred,  from  the 
abundance  and  character  of  information  about  the  period  subse- 
quent to  the  Reformation,  showing  liberality  of  view,  intelligent 
interest  in  respect  of  visitation  and  examination  of  schools  and 
appointment  of  teachers,  that  attention  to  the  subject  was 
continuous  and  adequate.  The  present  high  position  of  Ayr 
Academy  is  a  proof  that  there  is  no  break  in  the  continuity. 

The  condition  of  Ayr  from  a  commercial  point  of  view  is 
widely  different.  Because  of  its  strong  castle  and  excellent 
harbour,  it  was  created  a  royal  burgh  by  William  the  Lyon  in  a 
charter  of  1202,  which  is  the  oldest  of  those  actually  constituting 
a  burgh.  Though  not  strictly  relevant  to  our  subject,  the 
quotation  of  a  few  extracts  from  Dr  Patrick's  Inquiry  into  the 
History  of  Air  Burgh  School  is  perhaps  not  out  of  place.  "Ayr 
made  a  much  more  conspicuous  figure  in  Christendom  and  in 
Scottish  affairs  in  the  13th  century,  than  it  came  to  do  in  the 
1 8th.     Unlike  its  school,  the  burgh  did  not  maintain,  still  less 


I]  THE   GRAMMAR   SCHOOL   OF   AYR  II 

increase,  its  dignity  and  reputation  with  the  centuries.  Many- 
great  affairs,  in  war  and  peace,  took  place  before  the  eyes  of  the 
Ayr  burghers  and  scholars  during  the  century  after  we  first  hear 
of  the  school's  existence.  Alexander  III  often  held  his  court 
in  Ayr.  In  Ayr,  and  beside  it,  William  Wallace  performed 
many  of  his  most  startling  exploits.  After  his  defeat  at  Falkirk 
in  1298,  the  Earl  of  Carrick,  afterwards  Robert  the  Bruce,  burnt 
the  Castle  of  Ayr  to  prevent  its  being  taken  by  the  English. 
Ayr  and  Ayrshire  were,  in  quite  a  peculiar  sense,  the  cradle  of 
Scottish  independence.  It  was  in  Ayrshire  that  fortune  first 
smiled  on  Bruce's  struggles  for  the  crown.  The  year  after 
Bannockburn,  it  was  in  St  John's  Church  that  the  memorable 
national  parliament  sat,  which  settled  the  crown  on  Bruce  and 
his  heirs  for  ever.  At  this  time,  therefore,  Ayr  stood  in  the  main 
track  of  the  national  history.  It  was  one  of  the  most  important 
of  Scottish  towns.  In  respect  of  its  harbour,  its  '  goode  schipping 
and  skilfull  marinaris,'  it  was  next  after  Leith  and  Dundee  only. 
It  was  the  port  of  the  Clyde,  whence  ships  traded  to  Ireland, 
England  and  France.  In  1300,  Glasgow,  though  it  had  a  bishop 
and  cathedral,  had  only  about  1500  inhabitants,  and,  as  late  as 
1556,  ranked  (far  below  Ayr)  as  eleventh  among  Scottish  burghs. 
Ayr  was  practically  the  capital  of  the  west  country  and  behoved 
to  have  a  good  school." 

In  the  church  statutes  of  Aberdeen  reference  is  made  to  the 
existence  of  schools  in  the  latter  half  of  the  13th  century,  such 
as  the  statute  defining  the  right  of  the  Chancellor  to  the 
appointment  of  a  master',  who  shall  "know  how  to  teach  the 
boys  in  grammar  as  well  as  in  logic,"  and  the  witnessing  of  an 
ordinance  by  Master  Thomas  of  Bennam,  rector  of  the  schools 
of  Aberdeen.  There  is,  however,  little  in  the  burgh  records 
bearing  on  education  till  1418,  when  the  Chancellor  collates  a 
master  to  the  grammar  school,  "  a  prudent  and  discreet  man,  who, 
being  found  of  good  life  and  laudable  conversation,  is  given 
corporal  and  real  possession  of  the  benefice'-."  For  sixty-one 
years  the  records  are  silent,  and  even  then  there  is  simply  an 
entry  that  a  master  is  to  receive  ;«^5  yearly,  till  he  is  promoted 

^  Registrum  Episcopatus  Abcrdonemis,   u,  p.   45. 
2  Burgh  Records  of  Aberdeen. 


12  SCHOOLS   BEFORE    1560  [CH. 

to  a  benefice.  For  the  next  thirty  years  the  entries  are  very 
varied  but  not  educationaP.  By  this  time  the  Town  Council 
had  apparently  become  tired  of  paying  the  piper,  without 
having  the  privilege  of  calling  the  tune.  They  accordingly  in 
1509  appointed  John  Merschell  master  of  the  grammar  school  in 
due  form  (part  of  which  was  a  gift  of  a  pair  of  beads^)  and 
ignored  the  Chancellor  who  had  hitherto  appointed  the  master. 
Out  of  this  arose  a  contest  between  the  council  and  the  Chan- 
cellor, as  to  the  right  of  appointment.  The  particulars  of  the 
contention — perhaps  the  first  seed  of  town  and  gown  antipathies 
in  Scotland — are  not  known,  but  apparently  the  town  had  the 
best  of  it,  for  Merschell  retained  his  office  till  1523-'. 

In  1538  the  council  appointed  Master  Hew  Munro,  and 
asked  him — perhaps  as  a  matter  of  courtesy — to  go  to  the  Chan- 
cellor for  his  admission  conform  to  the  King's  command.  The 
Chancellor,  however,  was  not  satisfied  at  being  even  ceremoniously 
deprived  of  what  he  claimed  as  his  right,  and  had  chosen  for  the 
office  Master  Robert  Skene,  a  discreet  and  suitable  man,  whom 
he  asked  the  council  to  receive  thankfully.  Here  again  details 
of  the  struggle  between  the  Church  and  council  are  wanting, 
but  the  latter  were  again  successful,  and  Munro  remained  master 
till  1550  when  he  retired  with  a  "pension  for  his  whole  life  for 
teaching  the  bairns,  till  they  provide  him  with  means  of  living  of 
that   valued"     From    this   time    forward    the  council   kept   the 

1  All  men  between  the  ages  of  16  and  60  are  ordained  to  he  ready  for  war,  and 
watch  the  town  against  "our  aid  enemies  of  Ingland."  Another  ordains  that  "no 
swine  must  go  at  large"  during  the  Queen's  visit  in  1501.  Another  records  that 
Philip  Belman  was  fined  "for  the  sellinge  of  ane  apill  for  ane  penny,  quhan  he  micht 
have  sauld  thre  for  ane  penny." 

^  Grant's  Burgh  Schools,  p.  31.  The  old  name  for  a  rosary  was  'a  pair  of  beads.' 
The  Prioresse  in  Chaucer  had  ''a  peire  of  bedes,  gauded  al  with  grene"  Prologue,  159. 

'  Between  1523  and  1538  the  condition  of  the  school  seems  to  have  been  unsatis- 
factory in  respect  of  both  decayed  buildings  and  poor  attendance.  "  In  1529  Bisset, 
the  master  of  the  school,  is  to  receive  £,\o  Scots  yearly  to  pay  his  board  till  he  is 
provided  with  a  benefice  often  marks  Scots...  because  now  the  school  is  deserted  and 
destitute  of  bairns  and  it  will  take  a  long  time  before  it  comes  to  such  perfection  that 
he  may  get  profit  thereof." 

■*  This  Town  Council  seem  to  have  made  full  use  of  their  jiowers.  They  fined  a 
man  six  shillings  and  four  pence,  for  having  his  bonnet  on  his  head  in  the  wedding 
kirk  door;  and  they  ordained  that  "no  tailor  shall  sell  any  cloth,  but  only  made 
breeks  and  boxes  of  tartan."  No  reason  is  assigned  for  the  preference  given  to  the 
two  latter  commodities. 


l]  SCHOOLS   OF   ABERDEEN    AND   DUNDEE  I3 

appointment  of  master  in  their  own  hands.  As  successor  to 
Munro,  James  Chahner  was  elected  "during  the  town's  will.'* 
He  retained  office  for  seven  years  when  he  was  made  regent 
in  the  new  college  of  Old  Aberdeen. 

It  is  tolerably  clear  that  Dundee,  though  not  claiming  to  be 
an  educational  centre,  had  gained  a  good  reputation  in  the  15th 
century,  w^hen  Boece  the  historian  was  a  pupil  in  the  grammar 
schools  On  the  approach  of  the  Reformation  an  impulse  was 
given  to  education,  and  the  Dundee  schools  began  to  flourish. 
In  the  year  before  the  Reformation  we  have  proof  of  educational 
activity,  and  of  the  healthy  interest  shown  by  the  Town  Council. 
The  master  of  the  grammar  school  was  in  favour  of  the  new 
faith,  but  a  number  of  the  burgesses  favoured  the  old.  These 
took  offence  and  removed  their  children  without  paying  their 
fees.  The  council  were  in  sympathy  with  the  master's  views,  for 
it  was  "  ordainit  that  na  masters  nor  doctors,  fra  this  day  furth, 
tak  upon  them  to  receive  into  their  schools  ony  bairns  in  Maister 
Makgibbon's  school,  without  Maister  Thomas'  testimonial  that  he 
is  thankfully  payit  of  ilk  ane  of  them  that  happens  to  depart  for 
his  lawbours  made  upon  them,  and  gif  the  other  masters  or 
doctors  fail  herein,  they  sail  be  compellit  to  pay  of  their  awn 
proper  guids  the  debt  owing  to  Maister  Thomas  Makgibbon-." 

Though  there  are  references  in  the  burgh  records  to  the 
existence  of  schools  in  Edinburgh  in  the  15th  century,  the  first 
mention  of  the  grammar  school  occurs  in  15 19,  when  Vocat 
was  master.  Becoming  disabled  by  advancing  age,  he  was  suc- 
ceeded by  Henryson  in  1524,  and  thereafter  the  record  of  the 
school  is  continuous.  Henryson  was  appointed  for  life.  His 
successor  was  Adam  Melville  of  whom  little  is  known,  but  it  is 
supposed  he  was  of  the  same  family  as  the  famous  Andrew 
Melville  of  whom  M'Crie  speaks  as  "the  first  Scotsman  who 
added  a  taste  for  elegant  literature  to  an  extensive  acquaintance 
with  theology."  This  Adam  must  have  been  either  a  boaster  or 
a  very  remarkable  teacher — probably  the  former,  since  little  is 

1  If  Marry  the  Minstrel  is  to  be  trusted,  which  is  doubtful,  William  Wallace  was 
educated  in  Dundee, 

"In  till  Dunde  Wallace  to  scule  thai  send, 
Quhill  he  of  witt  full  worthely  was  kend." 
^  Maxwell's  History  of  Old  Dundee,  pp.  87,  88. 


14  SCHOOLS   BEFORE    1560  '  [CH. 

known  of  him — for  he  bound  himself  to  make  his  scholars  perfect 
grammarians  in  the  short  space  of  three  years.  On  this  engaoje- 
m.ent  Steven  the  historian  of  the  Edinburgh  High  School  remarks, 
'■  It  is  much  to  be  regretted  that  we  have  no  means  of  ascertain- 
ing what  were  Adam  Melville's  ideas  of  grammatical  perfection, 
and  that  the  process,  by  which  he  attained  a  consummation  so 
devoutly  to  be  wished,  has  not  been  handed  down  to  his  official 
successors ^" 

So    far    it   does    not   appear   that    the    school    had    a   local 
habitation,  but  only  a  name.     About  the  middle  of  the   i6th 
century,  however,  we  are  told  that  a  venerable  mansion  at  the 
foot  of  Blackfriar's  Wynd,  once  the  town  residence  of  Cardinal 
Beaton,  was  hired  for  the  school.     Soon,  thereafter,  the  scholars 
were  removed  to  a  house,  which  had  been  built  for  their  better 
accommodation,  near  the  present  site  of  the  university.     It  is 
not  clear  whether  this  house  was  built  by  the  magistrates,  or 
temporarily  hired,  but  the  evidence,  such  as  it  is,  points  to  its 
being  hired.    It  is  however  definitely  stated  that  in  1552  "James 
Henderson,  a  public-spirited  burgess  of  Edinburgh,  proposed  to 
the  Town  Council  that,  for  certain  privileges  mentioned,  he  would 
build  for  the  town  '  ane  fair  scule  to  mak  pepill   cum   to  the 
toun.'     It  is  warrantable  to  believe  that,  as  there  is  no  mention 
of  this  offer  having  been  refused,  it  was  accepted.    "  This,"  says  Mr 
Grant,  "  is  probably  the  first  of  those  educational  benefactions 
which  have  made  Edinburgh  a  name  in  the  history  of  education^" 
If  Mr  Henderson's  aim  in  making  people  come  to  the  town  was 
successful,  as  it  probably  was,  a  fashion  was  set  which  has  been 
followed  for  upwards  of  300  years  with  excellent  results.     There 
is  probably  no  other  city  of  similar  size,  into  which  so  many 
children  of  both   sexes   and   all  ages  flock  for  education  from 
outside,   and   no  city  which   has  been  so  abundantly  enriched 
with    educational    benefactions.      Before   the   establishment   of 
higher  grade  schools  in   1900  there  was  no  other  city  that  had 
so  many  secondary  schools,  fully  equipped,  charging  moderate 
fees  and,  in  respect  of  local  distribution,  conveniently  within  the 
reach  of  every  boy  and  girl  of  average  health  and  activity.    Further 

^  Steven's  High  School  of  Edin.   p.  5. 
^  Grant's  Burgh  Schools,  p.  69. 


I]        EDINHUKCni    SCHOOL    BUILT    15V   JAMES    HENDERSON         I  5 

there  were  as  many  bursaries  connectin<^  the  ordinary  with  the 
secondary  school,  as  there  were  boys  and  girls  intellectually  quali- 
fied to  make  a  profitable  use  of  advanced  education.  It  is  not 
too  much  to  say  that  any  lad  in  or  within  easy  reach  of  Edinburgh 
had  a  university  career  open  to  him,  if  he  had  the  requisite  ability 
and  pluck.  If  he  was  wanting  in  either,  the  university  was  no  place 
for  him.  To  complete  this  estimate  it  is  necessary  to  add  what 
is  a  simple  corollary  to  the  foregoing  remarks,  that,  if  there  was 
one  corner  of  Scotland,  where  the  tacking  on  of  a  secondary 
department  to  an  ordinary  school  was  unnecessary,  that  corner 
was  Edinburgh.  The  function  of  higher  grade  schools  will  be 
dealt  with  in  a  subsequent  chapter. 

Though  Henderson's  was  probabh-  the  first  educational 
benefaction  made  to  Edinburgh,  there  are  records  of  similar 
bequests  of  earlier  date  by  public  spirited  donors  to  Glasgow, 
Crail  and  Kirkwall'.  These  mortifications  however  have  been 
diverted  from  the  purpose  for  which  they  were  intended,  but 
when  and  how  they  were  lost  to  the  schools  is  not  recorded^ 

It  does  not  seem  necessary  to  discuss  in  detail  the  action  of 
all  the  towns  in  which  grammar  schools  existed  before  the 
Reformation.  What  has  been  said  of  Peebles,  Ayr,  Aberdeen, 
Dundee  and  Edinburgh,  and  the  incidental  references  to  Perth 
and  Montrose,  practically  represent  all  that  is  typical  of  pre- 
reformation  schools.  A  considerable  number  of  those  towns 
which  have  now  grammar  schools  had  none  before  1560,  and  the 
records  of  some  who  had  are  meagre  and  comparatively  valueless. 

Besides  the  schools  connected  with  the  Church  all  over  the 
country,  there  were  three  classes  of  schools  more  directly  under 
its  superintendence,  from  which  grammar  schools  mainly  sprang 
— cathedral,  abbey,  and  collegiate  schools.  Those  connected 
with  cathedrals  were  under  the  practically  absolute  rule  of  the 
Chancellor ;  those  connected  with  abbeys  under  that  of  the 
Abbot  who  represented  the  Bishop :  and  the  collegiate  schools 
were  in  connection  with  college  churches,  and  "  were  instituted 
mainly  for  performing  divine  service  and  singing  masses  for  the 

^  Grant's  Burgh  Schools,  p.  34—36. 

-  Bequests  for  charitable  objects  are,  in  Scots  Law  phraseology,  called  Mortifi- 
cations. 


l6  SCHOOLS   BEFORE    1560  [CH. 

souls  of  the  founder's  patrons  and  their  friends ^"  Their  function 
appears  to  have  been  rehgious  rather  than  educational.  There 
were  thirty-three  collegiate  churches  in  Scotland.  Mr  Grant 
makes  reference  to  only  two  of  them — Crail  and  Biggar.  In  the 
former,  Sir  William  Myrtoun  intended  "  to  found  a  school  for 
teaching  grammar,  but  his  intention  does  not  appear  to  have 
been  carried  into  effect."  Subsequently,  however,  Sir  David 
Bowman  founded  a  grammar  school,  and  appointed  a  kinsman 
to  be  preceptor  of  it.  In  the  charter  granted  for  it  the  out- 
standing motive  was  "  the  offering  of  prayers  for  the  prosperity 
and  safety  of  James  V,  Mary  his  queen,  David  Archbishop  of 
St  Andrews,  his  own  soul,  those  of  his  father  and  mother  and 
brother,"  while  nothing  is  said  about  education ^ 

The  college  of  Biggar  was  founded  by  Lord  Fleming,  Great 
Chamberlain,  for  a  provost,  eight  prebendaries,  four  singing  boys, 
and  six  poor  men ;  one  of  the  prebendaries  being  teacher  of  the 
grammar  school.  Apparently  nothing  is  known  about  the 
school. 

The  Church  which  up  to  the  beginning  of  the  i6th  century 
had  the  superintendence  of  both  church  and  burgh  schools  began 
to  lose  its  influence,  and  the  burgh  authorities  gradually  claimed 
and  obtained  control  over  them.  In  this  Peebles  set  the  example 
in  the  15th,  and  Ayr  in  the  i6th  century. 

Symptoms  of  dissatisfaction  with  ecclesiastical  authority  and 
of  the  coming  reformation  began  to  show  themselves.  This  was 
very  clearly  seen  at  Perth  where  a  friar  was  preaching  against 
heretics  in  presence  of  a  large  school.  The  boys  thinking  they 
detected  in  his  manner  and  arguments  a  resemblance  to  a 
preacher  of  whom  Sir  David  Lyndsay  had  given  a  description  in 
his  Satyre  of  the  Three  Estates,  commenced  hissing  so  vigorously 
that  the  friar  was  frightened  and  ran  out  of  the  church. 

^  Grant's  Biirgh  Schools,   p.    24. 

2  Charter  chest  of  Crail.  In  the  deed  there  is  one  strange  provision:  "Master 
John  the  priest  and  his  successors  are  forbidden  to  be  gamblers,  card-players, 
drunkards,  night-watchmen,  or  to  have  a  housekeeper  or  public  concubine."  This 
prohibition  is  clearly  in  the  interest  of  sound  morality,  but  that  it  should  have  been 
thought  necessary,  suggests  suspicion  about  the  character  and  conduct  of  John  and  his 
successors.  As  to  the  night-watchmen,  it  is  difficult  to  make  out  why  a  priest  should 
wish  to  be  a  night-watchman,  or  if  he  should  wish  it,  why  it  should  be  forbidden, 
unless  his  object  was  to  shirk  his  work  next  day. 


I]      PATRONAGE    DISPUTED   BETWEEN    CLERGY   AND   LAITY     1 7 

We  have  here,  as  elsewhere  in  the  attitude  of  the  laity, 
indubitable  evidence  that  ecclesiastical  influence  over  education 
was  on  the  wane,  that  supremacy  in  the  management  of  schools, 
for  which  the  Church  had  so  hardly  and  so  beneficially  struggled, 
and  which  they  had  so  long  enjoyed,  was  passing  from  their  hands. 
It  may  be  said,  and  with  truth,  that  the  aim  of  the  clergy  was 
not  education  itself,  with  its  power  of  sweetening  life,  promoting 
culture,  and  strengthening  the  commonwealth,  but  education  as 
a  means  of  adding  to  the  power  and  ensuring  the  stability  of  the 
Church,  The  Church  could  hardly  be  blamed  for  this  in  an  age 
when  it  was  "  thought  baseness  to  write  fair,"  It  is  certainly 
the  case  that,  in  the  1 2th  and  several  succeeding  centuries,  the 
only  schools  of  which  we  have  any  record  were  invariably  con- 
nected with  ecclesiastical  institutions.  What  may  have  been  the 
attitude  of  laymen  we  have  little  means  of  knowing,  but  the 
Church  at  least  had  that  motive.  Whatever  the  motive,  it  is 
beyond  question  that  to  it,  in  those  early  ages,  education  owed 
its  maintenance  and  advancement.  It  is  further  worthy  of 
remark,  that  this  traditional  connection  between  the  Church  and 
education  came  down  to  our  own  times,  till  it  was  much 
weakened  by  the  bill  of  1872.  Till  then,  ministers  were  the  only 
men  who,  as  a  class,  watched  over  education.  If  they  did  little, 
which  generally  is  not  true,  they  at  an)-  rate  did  more  than 
others.  Till  then,  the  minister  and  teacher,  the  Church  and  the 
school  were  closely  and,  as  a  rule,  harmoniously  and  beneficially 
connected.  Nor  can  it  even  now  be  said  that  their  zeal  has 
grown  cold.  They  have  now  only  a  share  in  the  oversight  of 
schools,  not  because  they  were  tired  of  exercising  full  responsi- 
bility, and  gave  it  up,  but  because  parliamentary  action,  in  the 
establishment  of  school-boards  by  popular  election,  left  them 
only  a  small  jjortion  of  what  had  been,  for  more  than  twelve 
centuries,  their  almost  exclusive  possession.  But  the  tradition 
still  survives.  The  Church  is  proportionately  more  fully  repre- 
sented on  school-boards  than  any  other  single  profession. 
Clergymen  realise  more  fully  than  any  other  section  of  the 
community  Ninian  Winzet's  estimate  of  the  importance  of 
education.  His  quaintly  expressed  opinion  is  perhaps  worth 
quoting. 

K.  K.  2 


1 8  SCHOOLS   BEFORE    1560  [CH. 

"  I  judgeit  the  teaching  of  the  youthhood  in  virtue  and 
science,  next  after  the  authority  with  the  ministers  of  justice, 
under  it  and  after  the  angeHcal  office  of  godly  pastors,  to  obtain 
the  third  principal  place  most  commodious  and  necessar  to  the 
kirk  of  God.  Yea,  sa  necessar  thought  I  it,  that  the  due  charge 
and  office  of  the  prince  and  prelate  without  it,  is  to  them,  after  my 
judgment,  wondrous  painful  and  almost  insupportable,  and  yet 
little  commodious  to  the  commonwealth,  to  unfeignet  obedience 
and  true  godlyness,  when  the  people  is  rude  and  ignorant ;  and 
contrary,  by  help  of  it  to  the  youthhood,  the  office  of  all  potestates 
is  light  to  them  and  pleasant  to  the  subjects" 

A  modern  educationist  says  much  the  same  with  admirable 
terseness,  "  A  sound  system  of  education  is  the  first  condition  of 
national  greatness." 

We  have,  in  the  history  of  education  in  Scotland,  abundant 
proof  that  the  learned  Winzet's  estimate  of  the  importance  of 
education  was  that  held  by  the  Church  generally,  not  only  in  the 
1 6th  century,  but  from  the  earliest  period  about  which  we  have 
fairly  trustworthy  information.  In  this  connection  it  would  be 
most  unfair  to  withhold  full  recognition  of  the  part  played  by 
municipal  authorities  in  the  promotion  of  education.  While  the 
Church  claimed,  and  with  only  a  few  exceptions  possessed,  the 
right  of  management  and  appointment  of  masters,  the  expenses 
generally,  including  the  providing  and  upkeep  of  buildings,  was 
met  by  Town  Councils  from  the  common  good  of  the  burgh,  or 
by  voluntary  assessments  imposed  by  the  burgesses,  or  by  fees 
or  other  perquisites.  In  some  cases  the  salaries  of  the  masters 
were  paid  by  endowments  from  church  lands,  but  these  were  of 
rare  occurrence.  Not  till  the  15th  century  did  the  burghs 
claim  to  have  a  voice  in  appointing  the  master.  That,  up  to 
that  time,  they  submitted  to  taxation  without  representation 
is  a  strong  proof  of  either  the  power  of  the  Church,  or  of  the 
educational  zeal  of  the  burgesses,  or  of  both. 

There  are  few  things  more  remarkable  in  the  history  of 
civilisation  than  the  thirst  for  education  at  the  beginning  of  the 
15th  century,  a  thirst  unquestionably  created  at  first  by  the 
Church,  but  now  largely  shared  by  laymen  and  Town  Councils. 

'  Winzet,  Third  Tractate,  i,  p.  23,  Hewison's  edition  S.T.S. 


I]  ENCOURAGEMENT   AND   GROWTH   OF    EDUCATION  19 

From  the  church  schools  and  not  from  Acts  of  Parh'ament 
sprang  our  burgh  schools,  and  from  these  again  our  universities. 
Kings,  Popes,  and  Parliaments  were  heartily  responsive  to  the 
demand  for  higher  education\  and  towards  the  end  of  the 
century  schools  were  established  in  every  considerable  town  in 
Scotland.  The  receipt  of  the  Bull  for  the  foundation  of  St 
Andrews  University  was  made  the  occasion  of  universal  festivity 
and  rejoicing. 

In  1496  the  famous  act  already  referred  to  was  passed, 
ordaining  that  all  burgesses  and  men  of  substance  should  keep 
their  eldest  sons  at  school,  till  they  were  competently  founded 
and  had  perfect  Latin. 

But  enthusiasm  for  higher  education  was  not  confined  to 
Kings,  Parliaments,  and  Town  Councils.  Outside  and  below 
these  recognised  authorities  private  persons  started  schools 
which  these  authorities  had  great  difficulty  in  suppressing.  In 
Edinburgh  and  elsewhere  burghers  were  forbidden  to  send  their 
children  to  any  but  the  principal  grammar  school,  under  a 
penalty  of  ten  shillings  for  each  person  neglecting  this  order". 
In  Ayr  the  private  teacher  was  ordered  to  pay  over  to  the 
teacher  of  the  grammar  school  the  fees  received  from  private 
pupils^  The  motive  for  this,  right  or  wrong,  was  not  objection 
to  the  spread  of  education,  but  the  welfare  of  the  burgh  school 
through  the  maintenance  of  the  position  and  dignity  of  the 
master.  It  was  held,  with  some  show  of  reason,  that  by  such 
regulations  men  of  higher  education  would  be  induced  to  offer 
themselves  for  the  position  of  master,  and  the  interests  of 
education  be  promoted. 

As  a  rule  the  prohibition  of  private  schools  applied  only  to 
those  in  which  the  province  of  the  grammar  school  was  invaded. 
Schools  in  which  "  only  grace  buke,  prymar.  and  plane  donat " 
were  taught  were  not  forbidden.  The  grace  buke  and  prymar 
were  meant  for  religious  instruction.  What  '  plane '  donat  was 
as  a  school  subject  is  matter  for  conjecture,  and  perhaps  meant 
such  elementary  Latin  as  would  prepare  for  admission  into  the 
public  grammar  school.     The  origin  of  the  name  '  donat '  is  no 

1  Exchi-i]ita-  Rolls,  99.  -  Burgh  Records  of  Edinburgh. 

^  Burgh  Records  of  Ayr. 

2  —  2 


20  SCHOOLS   BEFORE    1560  [CH. 

mystery.  Aelius  Donatus  was  one  of  the  earliest  grammarians 
who  hved  in  Rome  in  the  4th  century,  and  was  the  author 
of  the  most  important  school  book  in  the  Middle  Ages.  He 
was  also  the  author  of  valuable  commentaries  on  Terence  and 
Virgin.  John  Despauter  was  another  famous  scholar  and 
teacher  who  lived  from  1460  to  1520,  and  had  a  large  share  in 
reforming  the  text-books  of  Latin  grammar  then  in  use,  and  in 
popularising  the  study  of  Latin". 

The  passing  of  the  Act  of  1542,  which  granted  the  privilege 
of  having  the  Scriptures  in  the  vulgar  tongue,  not  only  hastened 
the  religious  movement  for  which  the  public  mind  had  been  for 
some  time  preparing  itself,  but  had  a  powerful  influence  on  the 
spread  of  education.  The  Archbishop  of  Glasgow,  for  himself 
and  in  the  name  of  all  the  bishops  in  Scotland,  seeing  doubtless 
that  the  act  would  injure  the  Church,  dissented  till  a  provincial 
council  of  the  clergy  should  decide  if  such  an  act  was  necessary: 
Sir  David  Lyndsay  thought  it  was. 

"  Bot  let  us  half  the  Bukis  necessare 
To  common  weill  and  our  salvation, 
Justlye  translated  in  our  toung  vulgare." 

It  is  quite  impossible  to  arrive  at  any  satisfactory  estimate 
of  the  emoluments  of  teachers  of  schools  previous  to  the 
Reformation.  In  the  first  place,  there  are  no  means  of  compar- 
ing the  purchasing  power  of  money  then  and  now,  even  if  a 
definite  amount  were  stated  for  a  definite  period  of  service.  In 
many  cases  the  amount  paid  is  stated  in  marks,  pounds,  or 
shillings,  but  the  period  for  which  it  is  given  is  not  mentioned. 
In  many  cases  the  amount  is  not  given,  and  all  that  is  stated  is 
that  the  council  have  ordered  the  master  to  be  paid  yearly,  or 
termly,  or  half  quarterly.  In  other  cases,  the  master  is  to  "have 
all  the  school,  and  that  those  who  put  any  bairns  to  him  should 
pay  him  a  year's  payment,"  which  seems  as  if  he  had  nothing  to 
depend  on  but  the  fees.  In  others,  he  is  to  receive  a  certain 
sum  "  besides  his  daily  portions  "  which  probably  means  partial 
or  total  board.  In  some  there  is  a  fixed  sum  with  the  addition 
of    a    capitation    grant.       In    a    number    of  cases,    the    council 

^  Sandys'  Hist,  of  Classical  Scholarship,  i,  p.  230,  ed.  1906. 
"^  Ibid.  II,  p.  212. 


l]  SCHOOL   BOOKS   AND   STIPENDS  21 

guarantee  a  certain  sum  yearly,  until  he  is  provided  with  a 
benefice  of  a  certain  annual  value.  In  some  cases,  a  schoolroom 
is  provided  for  the  master,  in  others,  he  must  provide  it  for 
himself  In  the  end  of  the  i6th  century,  education  in  Peebles 
seems,  as  has  been  already  said,  to  have  been  in  rather  a  bad 
way.  The  authorities  there  had  recourse  to  "  payment  by 
results,"  but  we  have  no  means  of  knowing  whether  its  un- 
satisfactory condition  was  the  cause  or  the  result  of  this  mode  of 
payment.  It  would  appear  from  the  burgh  records  generally 
of  Orkney,  Aberdeen,  Peebles,  Haddington,  Edinburgh  and  Ayr 
that  there  was  no  fixed  education  rate,  but  a  kind  of  voluntary 
assessment  payable  by  freemen  "  according  to  their  estates." 

Though  it  is  obviously  difficult  to  determine  even  the 
approximate  emoluments,  there  is  reason  for  believing  that  as  a 
rule  they  were  regarded  as  sufficient.  The  instances  in  which  the 
master  complains  of  insufficient  remuneration  are  few,  and  there 
does  not  appear  to  have  been  any  difficulty  in  finding  candidates 
for  vacant  posts.  Contentment  with  a  possibly  small  salary 
may  be  to  some  extent  accounted  for  by  the  fact  that  the  school 
was,  especially  in  Aberdeenshire,  a  stepping  stone  to  the  Church. 
There  are  frequent  references  to  cases  in  which  the  Town 
Councils  guarantee  to  the  master  a  fixed  amount  till  he  is 
provided  with  a  benefice.  In  1559  John  Hennerson,  master  of 
Aberdeen  Grammar  School,  was  admitted  to  the  chaplaincy  of 
St  Michael's  altar.  There  are  many  similar  notices.  This 
connection  between  the  school  and  church  has  in  the  three  Dick 
Bequest  counties — Aberdeen,  Banff,  and  Moray — survived  to 
our  own  time.  P"ormerly,  but  to  a  smaller  extent  in  later  years, 
the  parish  schoolmasters  in  these  counties  were  in  many  cases 
licentiates  of  the  Church,  looking  forward  to,  and  often  obtaining, 
the  status  of  a  parish  minister.  It  is  not  irrelevant  to  remark 
that  to  this  circumstance  the  superiority  of  the  Dick  Bequest 
schools  is  largely  due.  In  the  sequel  the  superiority  of  these 
schools  will  be  dealt  with  in  tolerably  full  detail. 

In  many  cases  the  appointment  of  masters  was  for  life,  ad 
vitam  ant  citlpaDi,  but  it  was  by  no  means  uncommon  to  fix  a 
year,  or  "  during  the  Town's  will "  as  part  of  the  bargain. 

Peebles  has  been  already  mentioned  as  a  burgh  which  was 


22  SCHOOLS   BEFORE    1560  [CH. 

not  uniformly  successful  in  its  management  of  school  matters. 
In  the  i6th  century  the  same  burgh  furnishes  two  examples  of 
what  involves  adpa  and  dismissal.  The  schoolmaster  is  laid 
under  this  obligation,  that  if  it  be  found  that  he  "  pass  from 
teaching  the  children  in  the  school  for  four  days  without  licence 
of  the  bailies  and  council,  he  shall  lose  his  balance  of  fees  due, 
and  be  discharged  of  his  service  incontinently  thereafter^" 

The  training  of  choristers  for  the  service  of  the  Church  was 
no  doubt  attended  to  from  very  early  times.  One  of  the  earliest 
sang  schools  of  which  there  is  any  record  is  that  of  Aberdeen 
about  the  middle  of  the  13th  century.  The  importance 
attached  to  the  sang  school  is  shown  by  its  being  provided  by 
statute  that  on  all  greater  feasts  there  shall  attend  four  singing 
boys — two  for  carrying  the  tapers,  and  two  the  incense — who 
will  be  present  at  matins  and  great  mass,  and  that  the  master  is 
enjoined  to  secure  their  regular  attendance^.  As  it  was  intended 
only  for  the  choir,  nothing  else  was  taught  in  it  but  "  music, 
meaners,  and  vertew,"  and  at  first  sang  schools  existed  only  in 
cathedrals.  We  find  however  that,  in  the  15th  and  i6th 
centuries,  such  schools  were  found  in  connection  with  abbeys 
and  in  almost  all  large  burghs,  that,  in  addition  to  music, 
English,  arithmetic  and  writing  were  also  taught,  and  that 
the  instruction  was  not  confined  to  the  choristers.  The 
Aberdeen  school  had  a  high  reputation.  The  master  was 
appointed  for  life,  and  all  the  expenses  of  the  school  were  met 
by  the  magistrates.  The  salary  of  the  master  was  here,  as  in 
some  other  burghs,  upwards  of  20  marks  Scots  annually^ 

The  choristers  sometimes  were  of  the  poorer  class.  In  1541 
the  Aberdeen  council  ordered  40  shillings  to  be  paid  to  each  of 
two  boys  in  the  sang  school  to  help  to  buy  them  clothes. 

In   the  burgh  records  of   Edinburgh  in  the  middle  of  the 


^  Burgh  Records  of  Peebles. 

*  Registrutn  Episcopatiis  Aberdonensis,  II,  p.  49. 

'  The  importance  of  the  master  of  the  sang  school  is  found  in  the  solemnity  of  the 
contract  entered  into  on  his  appointment.  He  obliges  himself  by  the  faith  of  his  body, 
all  the  days  of  his  life,  to  remain  with  the  community  of  the  burgh,  singing,  keeping, 
and  upholding  mass,  matins,  evensongs,  completories,  psalms,  responses,  antiphonies 
and  hymns  in  the  parish  kirk  on  festival  and  feral  days,  for  a  salary  of  24  marks  Scots 
annually.     Book  of  Bon-Accord,  p.  124. 


I]  SANG   SCHOOLS   AND   LIBRARIES  23 

1 6th  century,  sums  of  ^10  and  £4  are  mentioned  as  fees  paid  to 
different  masters  of  the  sang  school,  but  the  periods  for  which 
these  payments  are  made  are  not  stated.  The  parish  clerk  of 
Ayr  in  1551  offers  to  teach  a  sang  school  within  the  burgh, 
instructing  "neighbours'  bairns  or  others  whomsoever,  for 
payment."  Such  notices  from  their  indefiniteness  are  of  no 
value. 

Going  back  to  the  12th  century  wc  find  that  'grammar,' 
which  meant  all  classical  literature,  was  the  principal  subject 
of  instruction  in  schools.  By  degrees  the  horizon  widened  and 
in  the  15th  century,  law,  theology,  and  philosophy  were  added 
to  the  curriculum.  The  earliest  library  of  which  there  is  a 
record  is  that  of  the  Culdees  in  Lochleven  Abbey,  which  con- 
sisted of  16  books,  4  of  which  were  for  the  services  of  the  Church. 
The  others  were  portions  of  the  Old  and  New  Testaments,  and 
commentaries  upon  them,  the  works  of  Origen,  St  Bernard,  etc., 
all  of  purely  theological  type.  The  next  is  that  belonging  to 
the  Glasgow  Cathedral,  consisting  of  165  books  catalogued  in 
1432.  Many  of  them  were  required  for  the  services  of  the 
Church,  and  others  were  treatises  on  law,  theology,  metaphysics, 
and  natural  philosophy.  There  were  a  few  Latin,  but  no  Greek 
books.  In  view  of  the  amount  of  labour  and  time  expended  on 
the  transcription  of  so  many  books,  this  may  well  be  thought 
a  large  library.  The  next  is  that  of  the  monastery  of  Kinloss\ 
of  which  Ferrerius  made  use  in  his  teaching.  It  is  not  so  large, 
but  of  much  the  same  character  as  the  cathedral  library  of 
Glasgow. 

There  is  little  definite  information  as  to  the  amount  and 
character  of  the  instruction  given  in  schools  in  the  12th  and 
13th  centuries.  It  is  probable  that  it  did  not  go  much,  if  at  all, 
beyond  the  contents  of  such  documents  as  are  described  in  the 
catalogue  of  the  library  in  Lochleven.  There  is  however  evidence 
of  great  and  steady  expansion  in  the  list  of  the  library  belonging 
to  Glasgow  Cathedral  in  the  15th  and  in  that  of  Kinloss  in  the 
i6th  century'.  That  the  industry  which  went  to  the  production 
of  165  volumes,  many  of  them  dealing  with  science,  law  and 
philosophy,  should   have  failed  to  raise  to  a  higher  level   the 

^  Record  of  the  Monastery  of  Kinloss,   p.  60. 


24  SCHOOLS   BEFORE    1560  [CH. 

Standard   of  instruction    in   the  schools    is  to  the  last   degree 
improbable.     But  as  to  this  we  are  not  left  to  conjecture.     There 
is   authentic    record    that    the    master    prelected    on    Terence, 
Virgil  and  Cicero ;  that  pupils  were  forbidden  to  converse  in  the 
vernacular,  and  had  to  choose  Latin,  French,  Gaelic,  Greek,  or 
Hebrew.     This  was    doubtless  a  counsel  of  perfection.     It   is 
exceedingly  improbable  that  either  Greek  or  Hebrew  would  be 
chosen   as  the  vehicle  of  conversation.     Greek  was  very  little 
known  till  the   i6th  century  and  Hebrew  probably  not  at  all. 
But  that  another  language  than  their  own  was  imperative  implies 
a  striving  after  liberal  culture  of  most  satisfactory  promise.     It 
is   certain   that   even    in    the    14th   century   crowds   of   Scottish 
students  went  to  the  University  of  Paris  in  search  of  a  higher 
education  than  could  be  obtained  at  home.     In  Paris  they  must 
have  conversed   in   either   French  or  Latin,  and  probably  the 
latter,  that  being  the  language  common  to  the  whole  academic 
world.     If  Latin  was  generally  chosen,  we  should  be  disposed 
to  pardon  Latinity  of  questionable  purity,  in  consideration  of 
the   mental    discipline  which    it  secured.     We  have  it   on  the 
authority  of  Knox   that   in    1543  Greek   was   better  known  by 
members  of  parliament  than  by  the  clergy^,  and  Andrew  Melville 
was  taught  Greek  in  Montrose  before  the  Reformation. 

It  is  perhaps  necessary  to  accept  with  a  grain  of  salt  the 
account  given  of  a  visit  by  James  V  and  his  Queen  to  Aberdeen 
in  1540.  "They  were  received  with  diverse  triumphs  and  plays 
made  by  the  town,  university,  and  schools,  where  there  were 
exercise  and  disputations  in  all  kinds  of  sciences  with  diverse 
orations  made  in  Greek,  Latin,  and  other  languages,  quhilk  was 
mickell  commendit  bi  the  king  and  quene  and  all  thair 
company^." 

The  commendation  was  probably  courteous  rather  than 
critical.  James  V  was  a  poor  scholar.  Bellenden's  translation 
of  Livy  was  made  for  the  King's  benefit,  who  was  "  nocht  perfyte 
in  the  Latin  toung."  Accounts  vary  considerably  both  as  to 
the  time  when  the  teaching  of  Greek  was  introduced,  and  the 
extent  to  which  it  was  taught.    Erskine  of  Dun  is  said  to  have 

1  Knox's  History  of  the  Reformation,   34. 
'  Fasti  Aberdonenses,  p.  xxiv. 


I]  SUBJECTS   TAUGHT   IN    SCHOOLS  2$ 

been  so  proficient  that,  when  he  entered  St  Andrews  as  a 
student,  he  could  read  the  logics  of  Aristotle  in  Greek,  "quhilk 
was  a  wounder  to  the  regents  of  the  college  that  lie  was  sa  fyne 
a  schollar,"  whereas  in  1574  James  Melville  says  that  he  was 
taught  only  the  ABC  and  the  simple  declensions  of  Greek  in 
St  Andrews,  and  that  the  regent  "  went  no  farder'."  Again 
John  Row  is  said  to  have  taught  Greek  and  Hebrew  in  the 
grammar  school  of  Perth  shortly  before  the  Reformation-. 

Latin  grammars  by  Donat  and  Despauter  were,  long  before 
the  Reformation,  taught  in  schools,  Despauter  was  a  Flemish 
grammarian,  but  John  Vaus,  a  Scotsman,  was  the  author  of 
another  grammar  printed  in  Paris  in  1522,  He  was  master  of 
the  grammar  school  of  Aberdeen.  The  book  exhibits  at  length 
his  method  of  teaching  grammar.  Considerations  of  space  forbid 
quotation  of  the  details  in  which  he  explained  the  use  of  the 
parts  of  speech,  of  tenses,  cases,  and  other  grammatical  minutiae. 
Suffice  it  that  his  explanations  and  definitions  are  singularly 
accurate. 

The  printing  of  certain  school  books  was  a  monopoly  granted 
by  Mary  of  Guise  in  1559.  A  list  of  the  books  generally  used 
in  schools  is  given  in  the  deed  granting  the  monopoly.  The 
titles  of  upwards  of  a  dozen  are  given,  several  having  for  their 
object  the  teaching  and  learning  of  the  Scottish  language^.  It 
is  evident  from  this  that  the  Scottish  dialect  of  the  English 
language  was  at  a  very  early  date  taught  in  the  schools. 

In  Melville's  Diary  we  have  a  record  of  the  curriculum 
followed  in  the  schools  of  Logie  and  Montrose  before  the  Refor- 
mation. At  the  age  of  seven  in  Logie  instruction  in  religious 
subjects,  Latin,  and  French  vocables  was  given.  This  was 
followed  by  etymology  and  syntax,  the  colloquia  of  Erasmus, 
Virgil,  Horace,  and  Cicero.    After  five  years'  attendance,  Melville 

^  Melville's  Diary,  p.  30,  ed.  1842. 

^  M'Crie's  Life  of  Knox,   11,  pp.    15,   16. 

*  "  Ane  short  introduction  elementar  degestit  into  sevin  breve  taibles,  for  the 
commodius  expeditioun  of  thaine  that  ar  desirous  to  reid   and    write   the   Scottis 

toung (eight  lines  i^iving  the  names  of  hooks  used).      Ane  instructioun  for  bairnis 

to  be  lernit  in  Scoitis  and  Latin  ;  Ane  regement  for  educatioun  of  young  gentillmen 
in  literature  and  virtuous  exercitioun  ;  Ane  ABC  for  Scottismen  to  rede  the  Frenche 
toung,  with  an  exhortatioun  to  the  nobles  of  Scotland  to  favour  thair  aid  freindis ; 
The  geneologie  of  Inglishe  Britonis."     Grant's  Burgh  Schools,  p.  56. 


/ 


26  SCHOOLS   BEFORE    1560  [CH. 

was  sent  to  Montrose,  where  he  was  again  drilled  in  the 
rudiments  of  Latin,  in  the  first  and  second  parts  of  Sebastian's 
grammar,  and  read  the  Phonnio  of  Terence,  the  Georgics  of  Virgil 
and  was  exercised  in  composition  and  "diverse  other  things\" 
Unless  a  great  deal  is  covered  by  "  diverse  other  things,"  it 
would  seem  that  either  the  five  years'  course  in  Logie  had  been 
too  ambitious,  and  the  teaching  lacking  in  solidity,  or  that  the 
Montrose  school  was  not  sufficiently  progressive.  But  there 
does  not  appear  ground  for  either  alternative,  for  on  the  one 
hand,  the  teacher  at  Logie  is  especially  commended  for  the 
accuracy  of  his  teaching,  and  on  the  other,  the  Montrose  school 
had  a  high  reputation,  as  being  the  school  in  which  Andrew 
Melville  was  taught  Greek,  while  that  language  was  elsewhere  in 
Scotland  little  known.  This  is  shown  from  the  rare  occurrence 
of  early  Greek  books  in  private  libraries  and  the  catalogues  of 
Scottish  booksellers,  and  yet  it  is  certain  that  Scottish  scholars 
-s.  like  Boece  and  Buchanan,  who  were  in  the  forefront  of  learning 

on  the  Continent,  ultimately  returned  to  their  own  country. 
Florence  was  the  first  university  in  Europe  to  provide  in  1360  a 
professor  of  Greeks  and  early  in  the  15th  century  Greek  was 
taught  in  Paris,  Bologna,  Padua,  Salamanca  and  Oxford  I 

The  only  extant  account  of  the  way  in  which  a  school  was 
conducted  is  that  of  the  grammar  school  of  Aberdeen.     The 
directory  for  this  school  was  printed  at  the  end  of  John  Vaus's 
Rudiments  of  Grammar.     The  provisions  on  every  point  bearing 
on  school  life  are  almost  painfully  minute.    For  every  hour  from 
7  in  the  morning  to  6  in  the  evening  occupation  is  specified. 
The  first  duty  on  entering  the  school  is  prayer  on  bended  knee. 
When  a  certain  amount  of  work  has  been  finished,  the  preceptor 
enters  and  punishes,  either  by  word  or  strokes,  the  deficients. 
At  8  there  is  a  public  prelection  of  all  the  lessons  by  the  precep- 
tor.    Then    breakfast,  and    at    10   a   private  prelection   by  the 
assistant  masters.     At   11.30  a  second   prelection  by  the  head 
master  on  Terence,  Virgil  or  Cicero,  and  at  12,  dinner.     Before 
2  the  class  prelections  are  heard  and  errors  noted  by  assistant 
masters,   who  are  requested    to   see   that   they   do   not   them- 

^  Melville's  Diary,  pp.    13,    14,  17. 

2  Rashdall,  n,  49.  ^  Ibid.  II,  pp.  20  and  30. 


l]  CURRICULUM    OF   THE   GRAMMAR   SCHOOLS  2/ 

selves  the  things  which  it  is  their  official  duty  to  blame  others 
for  doing.  At  4  the  boys  rehearse  the  work  of  the  day  to 
their  tutors.  The  head  master  will  hear  one  or  other  class 
besides  the  highest,  when  it  suits  him.  From  5  to  6  there  will 
be  disputations,  then  prayers.  Neophytes  and  scholars  in  the 
rudiments  must  maintain  a  Pythagorean  silence  for  one  year. 
The  table  of  confession  must  be  learnt  by  heart,  and  some 
progress  must  be  made  in  arithmetic.  All  will  speak  in  Latin, 
Greek,  Hebrew,  French  or  Irish,  and  never  in  the  vernacular, 
with  the  exception  of  those  who  know  Latin.  Every  scholar 
will  carry  his  own  rod.  The  family  will  not  deal  with  strangers, 
nor  any  grammarian  with  a  dialectician. 

These  in  a  somewhat  shortened  form  are  the  rules  for  the 
conduct  of  the  Aberdeen  Grammar  School.  We  can  only  guess 
at  what  is  meant  by  public  and  private  prelections  and  disputa- 
tions, and  the  form  in  which  they  were  carried  out.  Nor  does 
the  method  by  which  a  Pythagorean  silence  was  maintained  lie 
entirely  on  the  surface.  The  custom  of  every  scholar  carrying 
his  own  rod,  and  the  prohibition  against  intercourse  between  the 
family  and  strangers,  and  between  grammarians  and  dialecticians, 
probably  have  reference  to  conditions  no  longer  existing^ 

Laws  also  are  laid  down  against  bartering  or  buying  without 
the  consent  of  the  master.  There  must  be  no  gambling  for 
books,  money,  clothes  or  dinner,  but  the  older  boys  may  stake 
leather  pins  or  thongs,  but  dice  may  not  be  used.  Bullying  is 
forbidden,  and  the  offenders  will  be  punished.  If  two  boys  fight, 
both  will  be  punished,  but  if  instead  of  words  any  one  gives 
blows,  he  alone  who  gives  the  blows  will  be  punished.  Old  pu-oils 
who  tempt  younger  ones  to  transgress  shall  receive  double 
punishment.  Among  the  offences  which  subject  the  pupil  to 
punishment  are  inattention,  lateness,  unpreparedness,  restlessness, 
talking,  and  using  the  vernacular. 

The  relation  of  schoolwork  to  Sunday  is  found  in  the 
burgh  records  of  Dundee  and  elsewhere,  and  we  find  that  for 
the  teachers  Sunday  was  not  a  day  of  rest.  They  had  to  attend 
to  the  behaviour  of  the  pupils  in  the  same  way  as  on  week-days, 
and    see   that    they  neither  play,  cry,  nor   dispute  during  the 

1  Grant's  Burgh  Sc/iools,  p.  61,  and  Miscellany  of  Spalding  Club,  V,  44,  preface. 


28  SCHOOLS    BEFORE    1560  [CH. 

preaching,  under  pain  of  being  punished  with  all  rigour.  It  is 
also  ordained  that  if  bairns  break  any  '  glasen  windows  '  the 
parents  must  repair  them  at  their  own  expensed  It  is  to  be 
hoped  that  we  are  not  compelled  to  infer  from  this  that  window- 
breaking,  and  generally  riotous  conduct,  was  especially  charac- 
teristic of  Sunday. 

At  this  stage  it  is  probably  convenient  to  give  a  summary  of 
what  has  been  attempted  in  the  foregoing  pages. 

It  has  been  shown  that,  from  a  very  early  period,  schools  of 
various  kinds  existed  over  the  greater  portion  of  Scotland,  and  that, 
in  the  more  important  towns,  there  was  more  or  less  complete 
provision  for  advanced  education.  Teachers  were  not  daunted 
by  their  being  sometimes  obliged  to  find  for  themselves  rooms 
in  which  to  conduct  their  classes.  Schools  of  this  higher  type 
were  invariably  under  the  care  of  the  Church,  which  had  for  its 
aim  its  own  stability,  and  the  advancement  of  spiritual  culture 
and  correct  life,  rather  than  intellectual  development.  The  pitch 
of  the  instruction  varied  considerably,  but  from  the  books  used 
we  may  infer  that  it  was  fairly  high.  Latin,  doubtless  of 
questionable  purity,  was  generally  the  vehicle  of  communication 
in  both  class-room  and  conversation.  The  precise  period  of  the 
introduction  of  Greek  is  somewhat  doubtful,  but  it  is  safe  to  say 
that  it  had  got  a  footing  about  the  middle  of  the  i6th  century. 
At  first,  the  only  pupils  were  candidates  for  service  in  the  Church, 
but,  in  the  14th  and  15th  centuries,  laymen  were  both  teachers 
and  pupils  in  the  schools  under  ecclesiastical  management.  Till 
the  15th  century,  the  authorities  in  cathedrals,  abbeys,  and 
collegiate  churches  had  the  exclusive  control  of  education  and 
appointment  of  teachers,  while  the  expense  of  maintenance  was 
met  by  municipal  funds.  It  was  about  this  time  that  some  Town 
Councils  claimed,  and  after  a  struggle  obtained,  the  right  to 
appoint  head  masters  to  the  grammar  schools.  There  is  evidence 
of  the  existence  of  other  schools  of  a  lower  type,  with  which 
neither  the  ecclesiastical  nor  municipal  bodies  interfered,  but  the 
welfare  of  the  grammar  schools  was  carefully  guarded  by  both. 
Adventure  schools  were  forbidden  to  teach  any  subjects  which 
were   considered   the  special  province  of  the  grammar  school. 

^  Burgh  Records  of  Dundee. 


l]  SUMMARY   OF   THE    FOREGOING    PAGES  29 

The  object  of  such  prohibition  was  the  maintenance  of  the 
prestige  and  high  social  position  of  the  grammar  school  master, 
which  was  one  of  great  dignity  and  importance.  We  have  seen 
that  there  was  the  heartiest  cooperation  among  all  classes,  from 
the  King  to  the  burgher,  in  promoting  education.  The  influence 
of  the  Church  was  however  becoming  weaker.  Its  policy  was 
one  of  defence  not  of  attack.  Its  aim  was  to  establish  orthodoxy 
rather  than  search  for  truth,  and  the  means  by  which  it  meant 
to  accomplish  this  was  dogma,  not  reason.  It  was  consequently 
not  progressive  enough  to  satisfy  the  demands  of  a  people,  who 
had  been  touched  by  the  great  intellectual  movement  which 
accompanied  the  transition  from  the  middle  ages  to  modern 
times,  and  which  received  stimulation  and  activity  from  a  variety 
of  sources — the  spread  of  vernacular  literature,  the  invention  of 
printing,  the  enlightenment  and  freer  exercise  of  thought  im- 
ported into  their  native  country  by  Scottish  students  who  had 
resided  in  continental  universities.  In  these  circumstances,  the 
barren  subtleties  of  scholastic  philosophy,  which  did  not  touch 
the  problems  of  practical  life,  could  not  hold  their  ground  against 
reason,  which  is  essentially  free  and  makes  for  progress.  Hence 
the  foundation  of  the  three  pre-reformation  universities  which,  we 
shall  see  in  a  future  chapter,  were  established  in  response  to  a 
popular  demand. 

It  is  impossible  to  compare  the  emoluments  of  teachers  in  those 
early  times  with  those  of  the  present  day,  but  from  the  fact  that 
comparatively  few  complaints  were  made  of  insufficient  salaries, 
and  that  little  difficulty  was  found  in  filling  vacancies,  it  may  be 
inferred  that  the  payment  was  fairly  adequate.  The  tenure  of 
office  was  oftener  than  not  ad  vitain  ant  ailpam.  Sang  schools 
also  existed  from  very  early  times,  but  there  is  not  any  record 
about  the  character  and  quality  of  the  music.  However  narrow, 
from  one  point  of  view,  were  the  labours  of  the  Church  in 
promoting  education,  we  should  be  indeed  ungrateful  not  to 
recognise  that  to  the  Church  we  owe  the  beginnings  of  that 
which  has  been,  and  still  is,  our  proudest  boast — a  system  of 
education  that  can  boldly  challenge  comparison  with  that  of  any 
other  country. 


CHAPTER    II 

UNIVERSITIES.     GENERAL  REMARKS.     FIRST  PERIOD 

So  far  the  condition  of  pre-reformation  schools  has  been 
described  with  only  an  incidental  reference  to  the  universities. 
The  origin,  constitution,  and  management  of  the  latter  during 
the  same  period  now  fall  to  be  considered.  This  necessitates 
more  or  less  detailed  reference  to  English  and  continental 
universities,  whose  foundation  preceded  those  of  Scotland,  and 
with  which  Scotland  had  more  or  less  intercourse.  We  have  seen 
that  as  early  as  the  14th  century  Scottish  students  who  sought 
for  more  advanced  education  than  could  be  got  at  home,  went 
in  great  numbers  to  England  and  the  Continent,  and  returned  to 
occupy  important  educational  positions  in  their  native  land. 

A  Scots  College  was  founded  in  Paris  by  a  Bishop  of  Moray, 
and  Scotsmen  had  a  '  Nation '  to  themselves  in  the  University 
of  Padua\  This  intercourse  with  England  and  the  Continent 
was  doubtless  accompanied  by  a  widening  of  the  intellectual 
horizon,  and  by  degrees  led  to  the  establishment  of  universities 
at  home.  It  is  not  necessary  for  the  purpose  of  this  work  to 
treat  of  what  is  legendary  and  untrustworthy,  or  discuss  the 
origin  of  the  University  of  Salerno,  of  which  nothing  is  known 
except  that  it  was  a  famous  medical  school  in  the  9th  century. 
Neither  are  we  concerned  with  the  probability,  or  rather  the  im- 
probability, of  the  University  of  Paris  having  been  founded  by  a 
Scotsman.  All  such  institutions  have  been  a  gradual  growth  in 
response  to  human  needs  and  the  demands  of  Christian  civili- 
sation, and  the  earliest  of  them  belong  more  to  legend  than  to 

^  Rashdall,  vol.  ii,  Part  I,  p.  296. 


CM.    II]  BEGINNINGS   OF    UNIVERSITIES  3I 

history.  In  the  middle  ages  up  to  the  time  of  the  Reformation 
they  were  strictly  ecclesiastical  institutions,  for  the  founding  of 
which  the  sanction  of  the  Pope  was  indispensable.  Omitting 
the  legendary,  we  go  far  enough  back  for  our  purpose  by 
referring  to  Bologna  and  Paris,  which  existed  in  the  I2th  century, 
the  specialty  of  the  former  being  canon  and  civil  law,  and  of  the 
latter,  scholastic  philosophy.  The  Universities  of  Oxford, 
Cambridge,  St  Andrews,  and  Aberdeen  were  modelled  on  that 
of  Paris,  that  of  Glasgow  mainly  on  that  of  Bologna. 

In  the  13th  century  Paris  was  the  centre  of  intellectual 
activity  in  Europe,  and  thither  Englishmen  who  aimed  at  a 
reputation  for  learning  found  their  way.  But  Oxford  and 
Cambridge  were  also  well  to  the  front,  and  there  were  similar 
large  migrations  of  Paris  students  to  these  seats  of  learning. 

Institutions  for  the  promotion  of  higher  learning  were 
designated  by  the  terms  studiinn  generate  or  universitas. 
These  designations  indicate  not  boundlessness  in  respect  of  the 
number  of  subjects  taught,  but  in  respect  of  local  and  territorial 
expansion.  Originally  universitas  had  no  reference  to  the 
range  of  studies.  Professor  Maiden  in  his  Origin  of  the 
Universities  says  "  In  the  language  of  the  civil  law  all  corpora- 
tions were  called  iinivcrsitates,  as  forming  one  whole  out  of  many 
individuals.  In  the  German  jurisconsults  nniversitas  is  the 
word  for  a  corporate  town.  In  Italy  it  was  applied  to  the 
incorporated  trades  in  the  cities.  In  ecclesiastical  language  the 
term  was  sometimes  applied  to  a  number  of  churches  united 
under  the  superintendence  of  one  archdeacon'." 

It  was  not  till  towards  the  end  of  the  14th  century  that  it 
came  to  mean  a  corporation  of  teachers  and  scholars.  Such  a 
corporation  was  in  medieval  times  called  a  studinm  generate. 
"  It  is  necessary  however,"  says  Mr  Mullinger,  "to  bear  in  mind 
that  universities,  in  the  earlier  times,  had  not  infrequently  a 
vigorous  virtual  existence  long  before  they  obtained  legal 
recognition,  and  it  is  equally  necessary  to  remember  that  hostels, 
halls,  and  colleges  with  complete  courses  of  instruction  in  all  the 
usual  branches  of  learning,  as  well  as  degrees  and  examinations, 

^  Prof.  Maiden,  p.  i.^  :  Ori^'n  of  Universities  and  Accuiemical  Degrees  (London, 
1835). 


32      UNIVERSITIES.     GENERAL   REMARKS.     FIRST   PERIOD     [CH. 

were  by  no  means  essential  features  in  the  medieval  conception 
of  a  university." 

The  customs  of  universities  have  undergone  many  changes 
between  early  times  and  the  present  day.  At  their  commencement 
Oxford  and  Cambridge  were  scarcely  different  from  what  the 
Scottish  and  continental  universities  are  now.  The  students 
were  taught  in  the  university,  but  lived  where  they  pleased. 
By  and  by  some  colleges  both  in  this  country  and  abroad 
provided  board  for  the  undergraduate  with  a  view  to  more  strict 
supervision  of  life  and  conduct.  This  however  has  been  departed 
from  everywhere  except  in  Oxford  and  Cambridge,  but  there 
too  within  comparatively  recent  years  admission  is  given  to 
unattached  students,  whose  chief  connection  with  the  university 
is  attendance  at  lectures  and  examinations.  Roman  Catholic 
theological  students  as  a  rule  live  together.  They  do  so  in 
Freiburg  in  Breisgau,  and  elsewhere,  and  call  their  house  a 
'  convict '  or  '  seminar.' 

In  no  respect  is  the  conduct  of  the  student  so  remarkable  as 
in  the  stay-at-home  habit  of  the  modern  when  contrasted  with 
the  wandering  life  of  the  medieval  student.  As  a  rule,  though 
there  are  exceptions,  a  Scottish  student  of  the  present  day  knows 
but  one  alma  mater.  Formerly  he  roamed  about  over  England, 
France,  Germany,  and  Italy,  at  his  own  sweet  will,  or  in  pursuit 
of  the  learning  for  which  each  university  was  most  celebrated. 
Germans  and  Belgians  generally  attend  more  than  one  univer- 
sity if  they  are  first-rate  students.  We  are  told  by  a  monk  of 
the  1 2th  century,  who  had  evidently  no  high  opinion  of  medi- 
eval learning,  that  "  the  scholars  are  wont  to  roam  around  the 
world  and  visit  all  its  cities  till  much  learning  makes  them  mad  ; 
for  in  Paris  they  seek  liberal  arts,  in  Orleans  authors,  at  Salerno 
gallipots,  at  Toledo  demons,  and  in  no  place  decent  manners." 

Migrations  of  students  between  Oxford,  Cambridge,  and 
Paris  arose  from  very  trifling  causes.  On  the  occasion  of  a 
sanguinary  struggle  in  1261  between  the  North  and  South 
factions  in  Cambridge,  in  which  the  townsmen  took  sides,  a 
body  of  the  students  betook  themselves  to  Northampton 
Within  about  seventy  years  afterwards  a  similar  migration  took 
place  from   Oxford   to  Stamford.     Both  migrations  were  tern- 


II]  LIFE   IN    MEDIEVAL   UNIVERSITIES  33 

porary,  and  the  result  was  that  a  statute  was  passed,  forbidding 
the  establishment  of  a  university  except  in  Cambridge  and 
Oxford*. 

The  large  migrations  of  Scottish  students  to  the  English 
and  foreign  universities,  and  of  French  students  to  Oxford 
and  Cambridge,  are  clear  proofs  of  the  cosmopolitan  meaning 
attached  to  nniversitas.  The  number  of  Scottish  students  in 
Paris  in  the  14th  century  was  so  great  as  to  attract  the 
attention  of  the  authorities.  It  is  not  strange  that,  in  view  of 
this  and  the  inconvenience  and  expense  of  travelling,  the 
establishment  of  a  university  at  home  was  thought  desirable. 

Even  in  1522  when  John  Vaus  went  to  Paris  to  have  his 
Grammar  published,  he  tells  us  that  his  journey  was  attended 
"  with  the  greatest  risks  by  land  and  sea,  and  by  dangers  from 
wicked  pirates."  The  description  given  of  student  life  in  Paris 
at  this  time,  if  furnished  by  a  writer  less  trustworthy  than  Thurot 
or  Denifle,  would  be  thought  incredible.  Discipline  seems  to 
have  been  entirely  disregarded.  The  students  frequented  caba- 
rets and  disreputable  haunts,  cheated  the  freshmen,  associated 
with  scoundrels,  patrolled  the  streets  at  night  in  arms,  defied 
the  law,  committed  murders  and  robberies  ;  festive  occasions 
became  orgies  of  drunkenness  and  debauchery,  unoffending 
citizens  were  assaulted,  and  games  of  dice  were  played  on 
church  altars-.  This  lawless  life  was  the  almost  legitimate 
outcome  of  the  students'  environment.  Some  lived  in  boarding 
houses  attached  to  the  colleges,  others  in  private  lodgings.  In 
even  the  best  of  the  former  food  was  poor,  and  in  some  of  the 
smaller  colleges,  both  unwholesome  and  scanty.  The  accom- 
modation was  wretched,  and  suggested  a  search  for  enjoyment 
elsewhere  than  in  the  college.  The  case  of  those  who  lived  in 
lodgings  was  still  worse,  for  the  lodgings  generally  were  in 
slums  inhabited  by  only  the  vicious  or  the  unfortunate.  But 
in  Paris  a  student  might  quarter  himself  on  any  ordinary 
citizen,  and  even  had  the  right,  if  his  host  pursued  a  noisy 
occupation,  to  force  him  to  carry  it  on  elsewhere. 


1  MuUingcr's  Univ.  of  Cambridge,  p.  135. 
-  Thurot,  p.  40. 

K.  E. 


34      UNIVERSITIES.     GENERAL  REMARKS.     FIRST  PERIOD       [CH. 

The  accounts  we  have  of  student  life  in  England  and 
Scotland  are  free  from  the  absolute  hooliganism  ascribed  by 
Thurot  to  the  Parisian  student,  but  our  record  is  not  immaculate. 
We  must  plead  guilty  to  periodical  outbreaks  between  town 
and  gown,  sometimes  disgracefully  riotous,  and  in  a  few  cases 
accompanied  by  loss  of  life.  Students  have  in  all  ages  been 
credited  with  a  certain  amount  of  bohemianism  and  disregard 
of  the  conventions  of  social  life,  but  it  would  be  unfair  to  infer 
that  the  majority  are  bohemians.  The  escapades  of  a  few  of 
the  more  restless  spirits  bring  them  out  into  the  open,  but  the 
peaceful  plodding  of  the  earnest  student  does  not  in  any  way 
challenge  publicity.  Hence  the  comparatively  few  give  to  the 
whole  body  a  reputation  which  they  do  not  deserve.  We  must 
also  take  into  account  the  surroundings  of  the  student  in  this 
early  age.  The  modern  youth,  whether  in  England  or  Scotland, 
reaches  his  university  comfortably  in  a  few  hours  ;  in  the 
middle  ages  he  took  as  many  weeks.  Much,  and  sometimes 
the  whole,  of  the  journey  was  done  on  foot.  The  roads  were 
bad,  the  inns  uncomfortable,  the  character  of  the  country 
unsettled.  It  may  be  fairly  inferred  that  many — probably  the 
majority — were  the  sons  of  men  below  the  middle  class  with 
badly-lined  purses,  which  when  empty  they  replenished  by 
begging,  to  which  no  disgrace  was  attached.  They  were 
hospitably  entertained  in  the  religious  and  other  houses  on 
their  way,  which  the  fashion  of  the  time  taught  them  to  regard 
as  almost  their  right.  This  life  curiously  compounded  of  hard- 
ship and  kindliness  was  doubtless  useful  in  teaching  them  to 
face  and  overcome  difficulties,  but  the  freedom  of  it,  and  the 
self-reliance  it  fostered,  almost  necessarily  created  a  habit  of 
mind  impatient  of  restraint  and  strict  discipline,  when  they 
reached  the  precincts  of  the  university. 

One  has  only  to  glance  at  the  rollicking  and  sometimes 
irreverent  ditties,  as  translated  by  Mr  J.  A.  Symonds,  that  were 
in  the  mouths  of  the  wandering  students — called  Goliards^ — 
to   understand    how  begging  was    enjoined   as   legitimate,  and 


^  Who  Golias  was  is  not  known.     He  was  a  person  who  was  dignified  with  the 
titles  o{  episcopus  and  archipoeta  in  whose  name  some  of  the  poems  were  written. 


II]        THE   WANDERING   STUDENT   OF   THE   MIDDLE   AGES        35 

bohemian  unrest  aroused  and  fostered  in  the  minds  of  all  whose 
natural  dispositions  leaned  that  way  by  such  verses  as^ : 

No  one,  none  shall  wander  forth 

Fasting  from  the  table. 
If  thou'rt  poor,  from  south  to  north 

Beg  as  thou  art  able. 

Dr  Giles  in  his  Utidergraduate  of  the  Middle  Ages,  to  which 
most  interesting  sketch  a  general  acknowledgment  is  due,  says 
"  One  of  the  most  curious  things  about  the  medieval  student  is 
his  quotation,  or  rather  his  perversion,  of  Scripture  on  every 
occasion  :  so  far  is  it  from  being  true  that  the  Bible  was  an 
unknown  book  prior  to  the  Reformation."  There  is  proof  of 
both  knowledge  and  irreverence  in  the  Goliard's  treatment  of 
the  advice  given  to  the  disciples  "  Take  nothing  for  your  journe)', 
neither  staves,  nor  scrip,  neither  bread,  neither  money  ;  neither 
have  two  coats  apiece." 

This  our  order  doth  forbid 

Double  clothes  with  loathing; 
He  whose  nakedness  is  hid. 

With  one  vest  hath  clothinff. 


'o' 


What  I've  said  of  upper  clothes 

To  the  nether  reaches  ; 
They  who  own  a  shirt,  let  those 

Think  no  more  of  breeches  ; 
If  one  boasts  big  boots  to  use, 

Let  him  leave  his  gaiters; 
They  who  this  firm  law  refuse 

Shall  be  counted  traitors. 


Or  again  as  an  encouragement  to  breach  of  discipline : 

This  our  order  hath  decried 

Matins  with  a  warning. 
For  that  certain  phantoms  glide 

In  the  early  morning. 
Whereby  pass  into  man's  brain 

Visions  of  vain  folly. 
Early  risers  are  insane 

Racked  by  melancholy. 

^  J.  A.   Symonds'   IVine,    If 'omen  and  Son^^  (1884). 

3—2 


36      UNIVERSITIES.     GENERAL  REMARKS.     FIRST  PERIOD      [CH. 

From  the  following  lines  it  is  easy  to  understand  how  the 
student  earned  the  reputation  of  drunkenness  and  generally 
dare-devil  behaviour. 

This  our  order  doth  prescribe 

All  the  year  round  matins ; 
When  they've  left  their  beds,  our  tribe 

In  the  tap  sing  latins; 
There  they  call  for  wine  for  all, 

Roasted  fowl  and  chicken  ; 
Hazard's  threats  no  hearts  appal 

Though  his  strokes  still  thicken. 

It  is  worthy  of  remark  that  the  university  student  in  his 
wanderings  was  a  privileged  person  in  the  estimation  of  princes 
and  potentates.  The  safe  conducts  they  granted  were  valid, 
even  when  the  journey  was  between  two  countries  at  enmity 
with  each  other.  Dr  Giles  in  the  sketch  already  mentioned 
gives  on  the  authority  of  Thorold  Rogers'  History  of  Agriculture 
and  Prices  an  account,  at  once  amusing  and  instructive,  of  a 
prolonged  journey  from  Oxford  to  Northumberland  and  back  by 
three  Oxford  dons.  Like  Dives  they  fared  sumptuously  every  day, 
except  by  eating  fish  on  Fridays  at  an  expense  so  ridiculously 
small  as  to  be  incredible,  were  it  not  attested  by  carefully  kept 
accounts.  "  Even  in  their  wildest  extravagance  at  Ponteland 
[where  a  great  festival  was  celebrated]  it  is  something  to  know 
that  a  flagon  of  ale  could  be  had  for  a  penny,  half  an  ox  for  four 
shillings,  two  carcases  and  a  half  of  mutton  for  2s.  6d.  Four 
ducks  cost  i^d.  They  had  also  eight  chickens  which  cost  2^d. 
each,  but  other  seven  they  got  for  2d.  each.  For  this  festival 
they  purchased  bread  to  the  amount  of  2s.  ^.d.  and  wine  to  the 
amount  of  4s.  \\d.  As  they  had  also,  we  are  told,  66  flagons 
(lagenae)  of  ale,  they  certainly  verged  upon  Falstaff's  half-penny- 
worth of  bread  to  an  intolerable  deal  of  sack  ^"  The  same  three 
dons  spent  Sunday  at  Northallerton,  where  bed  and  board  for 
themselves,  and  hay  and  provender  for  their  horses,  cost  them 
gd.  each. 

We  have  seen  that  the  master  of  the  English  grammar  school 
in  the   14th  century  was  held  in  no  estimation.     What  do  we 

^  Giles'  Undergraduate  of  the  Middle  Ages,  p.  7. 


II]  THE   LIFE   OF   THE   WANDERINT,    STUDENT  37 

know  of  his  pupils  whose  aim  was  a  university  career?     Mr 
Anstey'    thinks    that   a    lad    was    sent   to   the  university  who 
seemed  "fit  for  nothing  else."    He  was  supposed  to  have  received 
a   certain    amount  of  training    in    Latin    as   a    preliminary  to 
entrance.     It  was  imperative  that  he  should  place  himself  under 
the  protection  of  a  master.     His  age  was  probably  from  14  to 
15.     His  master  might  often  be  not  much  above  20.     Poverty 
was  no  bar.     If  his  funds  were  insufficient  to  meet  the  expense 
of  board  and  lodging,  he,  so  to  speak,  worked  his  passage  by  the 
performance  of  quasi-menial  services  as  an  equivalent,  such  as 
waiting  at  table,  doing  messages  &c.     Hence  the  origin  of  sizars 
in  Cambridge  and  servitors  at  Oxford.     If  he  required  an  ad- 
vance of  money,  he  had  to  place  in  the  proctor's  hand,  as  security 
for  its  repayment,  some  of  his  personal  belongings.    The  univer- 
sities were  then  poorly  endowed,  and  exhibitions  or  money  prizes 
were  few.    The  student's  dignity  was  not  compromised  by  his  en- 
gaging in  manual  labour  during  vacations.    Gaps  in  the  wardrobe 
were  sometimes  filled  by  his  master's  cast-off  clothes.     Further, 
when  all  else  failed,  and  often  before,  to  beg  he  was  not  ashamed. 
The  way  for  this  now  discreditable  mode  of  finding  ways  and 
means  was  paved  by  the  habits  of  the  mendicant  friars.     People 
had  been  taught  to  give,  and  regarded  it  as  a  religious  duty  to 
be   charitable   to    university    students,   many    of    whom    were 
presumably  under  training  for  service  in  the  Church.     The  taste 
for  this  method  of  filling  an  empty  purse  grew,  and  it  became 
necessary  to  check  it  by  specific  regulation.     No  student  was 
allowed  to  beg  publicly   unless  he  had   a  certificate  from   the 
Chancellor  of  the  University  that  his  case  was  a  deserving  one. 
The  student's  dress  was  assumed  by  many  who  were  not  students; 
many   who    were    undergraduates   disguised   themselves  in    the 
outfit  of  bachelors,  and  bachelors  took  the  same  liberty  with  the 
hoods  of  masters'-.     With  these  the  university  authorities  dealt 
severely    by    whipping   or  imprisonment   in   the  stocks.     It  is 
evident  from  this  that  there  was  a  large  unsatisfactory  element 
in    English    university    life    at    this    time.      The    existence    of 

1  Anstey's  Historical  Gleaniyigs,  2nd  series,  p.    17,  and  Mullinger's  Canibridge, 
p.  346. 

-  Miinimenta  Academica,  p.  360,  Anstey. 


38      UNIVERSITIES.     GENERAL  REMARKS.     FIRST  PERIOD      [CH. 

systematic  and  legalised  mendicancy  is  inconsistent  with,  even 
for  that  age,  a  reasonably  high  moral  tone,  and  can  scarcely  be 
accounted  for,  except  on  the  supposition  that  the  ecclesiastical 
leaders,  conscious  of  the  changes  that  were  not  far  distant,  were 
doing  their  utmost  to  hold  their  ground  by  filling  up  the 
universities  without  discrimination  or  selection.  Nor  was  the 
conduct  of  the  well-to-do  students  entirely  satisfactory.  Their 
tendency  towards  undue  expenditure  in  dress  and  extravagance 
in  other  directions  was  checked  by  a  distinct  prohibition^ 

Though  the  universities  were  in  their  origin,  mainly  if  not 
entirely,  intended  for  the  education  of  the  clergy,  and  for  a  long 
time  had  this  as  their  principal  aim,  it  must  not  be  supposed 
that  those  educated  under  this  system  confined  themselves  to 
the  discharge  of  ecclesiastical  functions.  Law  and  medicine 
were  regularly  studied  by  ecclesiastics.  Some  even  threw  aside 
their  clerical  character  to  act  as  ambassadors  at  foreign  courts, 
and  others  took  up  the  metier  of  soldiers,  going  forth  to  battle 
fully  armed.  Such  readiness  and  capacity  to  follow  pursuits  so 
widely  different  seems  to  warrant  the  contention  that  the 
universities,  though  ostensibly  ecclesiastical,  were  practically 
secular  as  well,  and  makes  it  difficult  to  decide  which  of  the  two 
— layman  or  churchman — was  guilty  of  poaching  on  the  preserves 
of  the  other. 

Meanwhile  though  the  battle  of  Bannockburn  had  secured 
the  independence  of  Scotland  and  peace  was  established  by  the 
treaty  of  Northampton  in  1328,  there  was  no  love  lost  between 
the  English  and  Scottish  people.  Bannockburn  was  a  bitter 
memory  to  the  former,  while  success  and  security  fostered  a 
spirit  of  independence  in  the  latter,  and  naturally  suggested  the 
question  why  they  should  not  have  a  university  of  their  own. 
But  apart  from  any  petty  motive  or  feeling  of  rivalry,  early  in 
the  15th  century  the  need  for  a  university  in  Scotland  was  much 
felt.  There  was  an  abundant  supply  of  students,  the  desire  for 
learning  was  great,  there  was  an  undivided  Church,  and  almost 
an  enthusiasm  for  its  maintenance  and  expansion.  In  some 
respects  it  was  the  day  of  small  things.  It  is  difficult  to  compare 
the  value  of  money  then  and  now,  but  we  find  doles  of  £4,  £8. 

^  Munimenta  Acadeniica,  p.  233. 


it]        reasons   for    founding   a    SCOTTISH    UNIVERSITY        39 

and  ;^io  paid  by  command  of  the  King  by  letters  under  the 
privy  seal,  for  the  expenses  of  sons  of  men  of  high  rank  while 
studying  at  Paris.  But  besides  this,  a  strong  motive  for  Scotland 
having  a  university  of  her  own  is  to  be  found  in  the  difference  of 
opinion  between  Scotland  and  England  as  to  which  of  the  rival 
claimants  to  the  pontificate  should  have  their  support.  In  the 
papal  schism  the  Scotti.sh  and  English  ecclesiastics  took  different 
sides,  the  former  regarding  Clement  VII,  the  latter,  Urban  as 
supreme  Pontiff.  In  proof  of  this  ill-feeling  we  find  King  Robert 
II  requesting  the  Oxford  authorities  not  to  molest  the  Scots 
students  though  they  were  "  damnable  heretics  "  in  supporting 
Clement  as  the  true  head  of  the  church. 

Whatever  the  obstacles,  nearly  a  hundred  years  were  to  pass 
before  a  Scotti.sh  university  was  founded.  In  its  absence  and 
as  a  temporary  measure,  Profes.sor  Hume  Brown  tells  us  that  in 
1326  the  Bishop  of  Moray  founded  the  Scots  College  in  Paris  to 
meet  the  wants  of  students  from  his  own  diocese,  though  subse- 
quently it  was  open  to  all  students  from  Scotland.  At  the  close 
of  the  14th  century  the  Scots  appear  to  have  been  more 
numerous  than  ever.  Out  of  a  list  of  21  supposts'  representing 
the  English  'nation'  (which  comprehended  Germany,  Scandinavia 
and  the  British  Isles)  9  are  Scots,  all  of  whom  were  subsequently 
bishops  in  their  own  country". 

Unfortunately  at  the  French  Revolution  all  the  documents  of 
the  Scots  College  were  either  lost  or  destroyed.  It  is,  however, 
rumoured  that  some  have  been  recently  rediscovered. 

1  A  suppost  is  any  member  of  the  university. 
'  Hume  Brown's  Hist,  of  Scotland,  i,  p.  208. 


CHAPTER    III 

FIRST  PERIOD  TO   1560.     ST  ANDREWS  UNIVERSITY 

While  much  in  connection  with  St  Andrews  from  very  early 
times  up  to  the  loth  or  nth  century  is  outside  the  domain  of 
authentic  history,  there  is  so  much  that  cannot  be  questioned 
as  to  make  us  recognise  a  singular  propriety  in  its  being  the 
possessor  of  the  first  Scottish  seminary  bearing  the  name  of 
University.  This  honour  and  benefit  fell  to  it  in  141 1,  thanks 
to  Bishop  Wardlaw  who  in  141 3  received  from  Pope  Benedict 
XIII  a  Bull  giving  papal  confirmation  of  the  foundation.  Its 
claim  to  this  honour  is  strictly  in  keeping  with  its  holding  the 
Primacy  of  the  whole  Scottish  Church  from  the  downfall  of 
lona  to  that  of  the  medieval  Church^ ;  its  connection  with  the 
Culdees  ;  its  St  Regulus  Tower  marking  the  change  from  the 
Celtic  to  the  Roman  Church  ;  its  priory,  cathedral  and  monas- 
teries— among  the  oldest  in  Scotland  ;  its  Schola  Illustris^  the 
existence  of  which  is  undoubted  though  its  exact  date  is 
uncertain,  and  which  was  probably  the  germ  which  many 
years  afterwards  developed  into  a  University. 

1  For  a  long  time  the  head  ecclesiastic  of  Scotland  was  the  Archbishop  of 
Canterbury,  much  to  the  dissatisfaction  of  the  Scots,  whom  the  Pope  would  not 
allow  to  have  an  Archbishop  of  their  own.  The  first  Archbishop  of  St  Andrews 
was  Patrick  Graham  in  1465,  the  second  was  William  Scheves  in  1478,  Graham 
having  been  deposed  for  maladministration.      Dictionary  of  National  Biography. 

*  The  Schola  Illustris  was  probably  a  part  of  the  monastic  buildings.  The 
Pedagogy  contained  both  class-rooms  and  dormitories  as  well  as  a  kitchen  and  other 
domestic  offices,  and  had  the  Chajiel  of  St  John  attached  to  it.  It  was  the  property 
of  the  Faculty  of  Arts,  but  the  Faculty  of  Canon  Law  had  the  use  of  some  parts  of 
the  buildings.  Unfortunately  the  Pedagogy  had  very  slender  endowments  and  so 
rapidly  fell  into  decay. 


CH.  Ill]      THE   FOUNDING   OF   ST   ANDKKWS    UNIVERSITY  4I 

Bower,  a  contemporary  writer,  says  distinctly  that  the  "general 
study  of  the  University  in  the  city  of  St  Andrew  of  Kilrymonth 
in  Scotland  began  in  14 10  after  the  feast  of  Pentecost."  The 
substantial  accuracy  of  the  statement  is  confirmed  by  the 
charter  granted  by  Bishop  Wardlaw  in  1411-12  where  it  is 
stated  that  the  university  had  already  made  a  praiseworthy 
commencement  {jam  laudabiliter  inchoata).  The  reception  of 
the  Confirmation  Bull  and  of  others  confirming  various  privileges 
in  141 3-14  was  the  occasion  of  great  rejoicing. 

The  historian  thus  describes  it : 

"  The  arrival  [of  the  Papal  Bulls]  was  welcomed  by  the 
ringing  of  bells  from  the  steeples,  and  the  tumultuous  joy  of  all 
classes  of  the  inhabitants.  On  the  following  day,  being  Sunday, 
a  solemn  convocation  of  the  clergy  was  held  in  the  Refectory ; 
and  the  Papal  Bulls  having  been  read  in  the  presence  of  the 
Bishop,  the  Chancellor  of  the  University,  they  proceeded  in 
procession  to  the  high  altar  (of  the  cathedral)  when  the  Te 
Deum  was  sung  by  the  whole  assembly  ;  the  bishops,  priors, 
and  other  dignitaries  being  arrayed  in  their  richest  canonicals, 
whilst  400  clerks,  besides  novices  and  lay  brothers,  and  an 
immense  crowd  of  spectators,  bent  down  before  the  high  altar  in 
gratitude  and  adoration.  High  mass  was  then  celebrated  and 
the  remainder  of  the  day  was  devoted  to  mirth  and  festivity^" 

James  I  was  at  this  time  a  prisoner  in  England,  but  he  was 
kept  informed  of  the  movement  for  founding  a  university  and 
gave  it  his  hearty  approval.  On  his  release  from  captivity  and 
after  his  coronation  in  1424  he  made  vigorous  efforts  to  promote 
the  growth  of  the  university. 

That  he  visited  the  institution,  listened  to  disputations  by 
the  students,  praised  and  promoted  to  benefices  in  the  Church 
those  who  distinguished  themselves  in  his  presence,  and  invited 
foreign  scholars  and  Carthusian  monks  to  teach  in  the  Paedago- 
gium  is  perhaps  true,  but  the  university  records  furnish  no 
evidence  in  support  of  such  statements.  That  he  was  keenly 
interested  in  its  prosperity  has  been  placed  beyond  doubt  by 
Mr  Maitland  Anderson,  librarian  to  the  university.  Through 
correspondence  with  an  official  in  the  Bibliographical  Office  in 

1  Tytler's  Histoiy  of  Scotland,  II,  p.  43  (1864). 


42         FIRST  PERIOD  TO  1560.      ST  ANDREWS  UNIVERSITY      [CH. 

Rome  he  has  learned  from  a  papal  missive,  the  text  of  which  is 
now  pubhshed  for  the  first  time'  that,  within  two  years  of  his 
coronation,  James  appHed  to  Pope  Martin  V  for  permission  to 
transfer  the  university  from  St  Andrews  to  Perth.  For  this 
petition  two  reasons  are  given,  first,  that  St  Andrews  being  on 
the  sea-coast  was  too  near  England  with  which  country  Scotland 
was  often  at  war,  and  second,  that  Perth  was  in  the  centre  of  the 
kingdom,  had  a  better  climate,  and  a  more  abundant  supply  of 
provisions  than  other  places  in  Scotland.  The  proposal  was 
not  unnatural.  Perth  was  still  the  capital.  His  first  parliament 
had  met  there  in  1424.  He  was  proposing  to  found  there  a 
Carthusian  monastery.  The  transference  presented  little  diffi- 
culty, for  in  St  Andrews  the  university  had  the  name  but 
practically  no  habitation,  and  scarcely  any  property.  Teaching 
was  carried  on  in  halls  opened  by  the  various  masters.  There 
was  no  collegiate  life  and  the  students  lived  where  they  pleased. 
The  Pope  referred  the  King's  petition  to  the  Bishops  of  Glasgow 
and  Dunblane.  What  their  views  were  is  not  known,  but  the 
proposal  was  not  carried  out. 

Whatever  the  objections  to  the  King's  proposal  may  have 
been,  it  is  evident  that  they  produced  no  falling  off  in  his  zeal 
for  the  interests  of  the  university,  in  the  activity  of  Bishop 
Wardlaw,  or  in  the  co-operation  of  the  Faculty  of  Arts.  It  is 
probable,  as  suggested  by  Mr  Anderson  in  the  article  already 
referred  to,  that  the  proposed  removal  to  Perth  stirred  up  the 
authorities  to  renewed  efforts  for  strengthening  the  position  of 
St  Andrews.  We  find  the  Bishop  prepared  to  hand  over  a 
tenement  which  might  be  made  into  a  college  for  the  Faculty 
of  Arts,  provided  the  Faculty  would  make  a  grant  from  its 
common  purse  towards  the  construction  of  the  building.  To 
this  the  Faculty  heartily  agreed,  and  in  due  cour.se  the  Nova 
Schola  Facultatis  was  completed  much  to  the  satisfaction  of  all. 
This  was  followed  by  the  King  granting  a  charter  in  which  he 
took  the  university  under  his  protection,  and  exempted  it  and 
all  its  members  from  taxations  and  burdens  of  every  kind.  Till 
the  end  of  his  life  he  made  most  earnest  endeavours  to  produce 
peace  and  harmony  between  the  competing  pedagogies,  which 

^  J.  M.  Anderson's  Scottish  Historical  Review,  April,  1906. 


Ill]  ORGANISATION    OF   ST   ANDREWS    UNIVERSITY  43 

had  all  along  been  a  fruitful  source  of  discord,  recommending 
the  masters  and  students  in  the  different  pedagogies  to  meet 
with  each  other  frequently  with  a  view  to  friendly  intercourse, 
and  so  promote  the  prosperity  of  the  university'. 

No  university  could  start  under  more  favourable  auspices 
than  one  with  a  King  like  James  I  for  its  patron,  a  Bishop  like 
Wardlavv  for  its  founder  and  a  churchman  like  Laurence  of 
Lindores  for  its  Rector. 

St  Andrews  was  modelled  after  the  constitution  of  the  Uni- 
versity of  Paris,  and,  like  it,  was  divided  into  four  'nations' — Fife, 
Lothian,  Angus,  and  Alban-.  It  will  be  seen  further  on  that  a 
similar  division  into  nations  was  carried  out  in  Glasgow  and 
Aberdeen.  The  reason  for  such  a  division  was  that  the  Rector 
who  was  then  one  of  the  most  important  officers  in  the  univer- 
sity, was  elected  by  the  votes  of  proctors  chosen  (one  for  each 
nation)  by  the  students,  who  might  be  from  any  part  of  the 
world.  Foreigners  were  no  doubt  fewer  than  natives  and,  but 
for  such  an  arrangement,  would  have  been  outvoted.  We  have 
here  a  proof  of  the  cosmopolitan  character  of  the  medieval 
University.  Provision  was  made  for  the  admission  and  recog- 
nition of  students  of  every  nationality  as  members  of  a  great 
intellectual  commonwealth. 

It  is  curious  that  the  United  States  of  America  should  have 
adopted  this  method  for  the  election  of  the  President.  It  has 
been  equally  futile  in  both  cases,  proctors  and  delegates  being 
alike  pledged  to  vote  for  a  particular  person.  The  division  was 
necessarily  somewhat  arbitrary,  and  in  the  foreign  universities 
was  changed  from  time  to  time,  depending  on  their  development 
and  expansion.  The  election  of  the  Rector  by  the  students  as 
above  described  has  continued  to  our  own  times  in  Glasgow  and 
Aberdeen  and  the  prerogative  is  jealously  guarded  against 
interference.  The  changes  and  mode  of  election  in  St  Andrews 
and  Edinburgh  will  be  mentioned  in  their  proper  place.     The 

^  Private  halls  or  pedagogies  were  for  some  time  permitted,  but  this  w.-is  forbidden 
in  1429,  as  discards  and  scandals  arose  in  connection  with  them.  The  prohijjition 
was  however  evaded,  and  in  1460  it  was  resolved  that  there  should  in  future  be  only 
one  pedagogy,     .-h/s  of  the  Faculty  of  Arts  (f.  48a).     Rashdall,  II,  p.  301. 

-  The  Alban  nation  included  all  students  not  included  in  the  other  three. 


44        FIRST  PERIOD  TO  1 560.      ST  ANDREWS  UNIVERSITY      [CH. 

Rector,  except  as  being  a  member  of  the  University  Court,  has 
ceased  to  be  an  educational  officer,  his  position  is  purely 
honorary,  and  his  election  has  no  educational  aspect.  The 
cleavage  is  generally  political  and,  as  might  be  expected,  a  source 
of  heat,  rivalry,  and  energetic  contention.  Large  posters  are 
abundantly  displayed,  leaflets  describing  the  competing  claims 
of  the  proposed  candidates  are  lavishly  distributed,  and  heated 
orations  are  fulminated  at  uproarious  meetings  for  several  weeks 
before  the  election.  It  may  be  fairly  described  as  the  Univer- 
sity Saturnalia  during  which  the  students  may  within  pretty 
wide  limits  do  what  they  please  in  support  of  the  respective 
candidates. 

With  all  this  however  it  is  unquestionable  that  the  choice 
made  by  callow  youths  has  been  almost  without  exception 
excellent.  The  very  highest  names  in  literature  and  statesman- 
ship are  found  in  the  list  of  Lord  Rectors,  and  there  is  scarcely 
one  of  which  any  university  might  not  be  proud.  To  be  chosen 
for  the  office  is  one  of  the  most  coveted  distinctions  by  men  of 
the  greatest  eminence. 

There  is  in  every  age  a  feature  common  to  all  ecclesiastical 
institutions,  Roman  Catholic  and  Protestant  alike,  a  tendency  to 
self-assertion  often  amounting  to  arrogance  in  their  dealings 
with  and  attitude  towards  laymen,  as  if  they  had  a  heaven-sent 
commission  to  direct  and  control.  That  this,  though  objection- 
able from  many  points  of  view,  has  its  uses  cannot  be  denied, 
and  is  especially  true  of  the  action  of  the  hierarchy  of  the  middle 
ages.  The  Church  was  the  ark  which  must  by  all  means  be 
preserved  from  wreckage,  and  be  equipped  to  ride  the  storm. 
It  had  to  fight  against  the  power  of  the  nobles,  and  it  could 
fight  only  with  intellectual  weapons.  Hence  the  encouragement 
of  learning  which  characterised  the  efforts  of  the  Romish  Church 
in  the  1 3th  and  14th  centuries.  She  felt  that  knowledge  was  power, 
and  laboured  zealously  for  its  increase.  An  overweening  faith 
in  the  infallibility  of  dogma  prevented  her  from  suspecting  that 
increase  of  knowledge  and  cultivation  of  intellect  might  shake 
the  foundations  of  dogma  and  ecclesiasticism,  and  bring  them  to 
ruin.  This  however  was  the  result.  Whatever  the  motive  may 
have  been,  the  fact  that  she  did  so  much  for  the  maintenance 


Ill]       UNDERC.RADUATKS   AS   ELECTORS   OF   THE    RECTOR        45 

and  expansion  of  educational  institutions  cannot  be  li^^htly  set 
aside  and  forgotten. 

As  we  are  told  by  Hill  Burton  : 

"The  Church    supplied    something  then,  indeed,  which   we 
search  after  in  vain  in  the  present  day,  and  which  we  shall  only 
achieve  by  some  great  strides  in  academic  organisation,  capable 
of  supplying  from  within  what  was  then  supplied  from  without. 
What  was  thus  supplied   was   no  less  than   that  cosmopolitan 
nature,  which    made   the    university  not    merely    parochial,  or 
merely    national,   but    universal    as    its    name   denoted.      The 
temporal    prince    might   endow  the   academy  with    lands    and 
riches,  and    might    confer   upon   its    members  honourable  and 
lucrative  privileges  ;  but  it  was  to  the  head  of  the  one  indivisible 
Church  that  the  power  belonged  of  franking  it  all  over  Christen- 
dom, and    establishing   throughout  the  civilised   world   a  free- 
masonry of  intellect  which  made  all  the  universities,  as  it  were, 
one  great  corporation  of  the  learned  men  of  the  worlds"     This 
is  to  a  large  extent  true,  but  it  is  right  to  add  that  in  the  middle 
ages,  just  as  now,  students  went  wherever  great  names  attracted 
them.     It  is  probably  correct  to  say  that  within  comparatively 
recent  years  lectures  on  Theology  in  Berlin,  Freiburg  and  else- 
where, were  attended  by  as  cosmopolitan   an  audience  as  the 
middle  ages  ever  saw. 

Though  the  University  of  St  Andrews  was  founded  in  141 1, 
twenty  years  passed  before  it  had  a  local  habitation.  As  already 
mentioned  the  teaching  was  carried  on  in  rooms  lent  or  hired 
for  the  purpose  in  different  parts  of  the  city,  but  in  1430  Bishop 
VVardlaw  set  apart  a  building  for  the  exclusive  use  of  the  teachers 
and  students.  As  yet  it  had  no  colleges,  but  it  got  three  before 
the  Reformation.  The  first,  St  Salvator's,  was  founded  in  1450 
by  Bishop  Kennedy  of  whom  Hill  Burton  says  "  He  was  the 
first  churchman  to  hold  high  political  influence  in  Scotland. 
His  is  one  of  the  few  political  reputations  against  which  no 
stone  is  cast-."     He  endowed  this  college  with  great  munificence^ 

^  Hill  Burton's  Scot  A droaci,  p.  171,  ed.  1883. 

-  "  Scottish  history  contains  no  more  dramatic  interview  than  that  which  took  place 
between  James  II  and  Hishop  Kennedy  in  his  castle  of  St  Andrews,  when  the  three 
great  Earls— the  Earl  of  Douglas,  the  Tiger  Earl  of  Crawford,  and  the  Lord  of  the 
Isles— had  made  a  'band,'  and  bound  themselves  by  an  oath  to  stand  by  each  other 


46         FIRST  PF.KIOI)  TO   1560.      ST  ANDREWS  UNIVERSITY      [CH. 

furnishing  the  church  with  stoles  for  the  priests,  gold  and  silver 
vessels,  censers,  bells,  candelabras  &c.  He  provided  for  the 
maintenance  of  thirteen  persons  to  recall  the  number  of  our 
Lord  and  His  twelve  apostles.  These  were  a  Provost,  a  Licen- 
tiate, a  Bachelor,  four  Masters  of  Arts  and  six  poor  clerics. 
Young  men  of  rank  and  wealth  were  allowed  to  study  in  the 
college,  but  were  bound  to  obey  the  Provost  and  observe  the 
rules  of  the  house  just  as  the  poor  scholars  were. 

In  1468  the  College  of  St  Salvator  got  from  Pope  Pius  H  the 
unusual  privilege  of  examining  its  own  candidates  for  degrees, 
and  Pope  Pius  HI  in  1537  granted  the  same  privilege  to 
St  Mary's.  It  is  not  certain  that  the  privilege  extended  to  the 
conferring  of  degrees  without  the  intervention  of  the  Chancellor^ 
If  it  did,  it  seems  to  show  that  the  distinction  between  college 
and  university  was  no  longer  retained.  The  case  of  Marischal 
College  in  Aberdeen  in  1593  is  different,  inasmuch  as  at  that 
time  Marischal  College  had  a  Chancellor  and  Rector  of  its  own, 
and  continued  to  confer  degrees  as  a  distinct  university  till  its 
union  with  King's  College,  Old  Aberdeen,  in  i860. 

In  1 5 12  the  College  of  St  Leonard  was  founded  by  Arch- 
bishop Alexander  Stuart,  natural  son  of  James  IV,  and  Prior 
John  Hepburn.  On  the  site  chosen  for  it  there  had  once  stood 
a  hospital  for  the  lodgment  of  pilgrims  who  came  to  see  the 
miracles  wrought  by  the  relics  of  St  Andrew,  As  intelligence 
grew  and  superstition  declined,  miracles  ceased  and  pilgrims 
disappeared.  The  hospital  was  converted  into  an  asylum  for 
old  and  infirm  women,  whose  conduct  seems  to  have  given  but 
a  poor  return  for  the  refuge  provided  for  them.  The  old  charter 
says  "they  yielded  but  little  or  no  good  fruit  by  their  life  and 
conversation."  The  two  founders  accordingly  turned  it  to 
better  use,  and  provided  for  the  maintenance  of  one  principal, 

against  the  King.  James  in  despair  had  all  but  resolved  to  fly  from  his  kingdom  ;  but 
before  doing  so  he  took  refuge  with  his  cousin,  the  Bishop,  who  led  him  to  his  own 
chamber.  There  they  knelt  down  and  prayed  together.  After  this  Kennedy  gave 
the  King  a  sheaf  of  arrows  bound  together,  and  bade  him  break  them  as  they  were. 
When  the  King  could  not,  he  then  bade  him  loose  the  sheaf  and  break  them  one  by 
one.  By  this  acted  parable  the  Bishop  conveyed  the  counsel  Divide  et  impera.  The 
King  acted  on  the  advice... and  thus  succeeded  in  dissolving  the  band  of  the  three 
great  Earls."  Fraser's  Magazine,  June,  1882,  by  Principal  Shairp,  p.  712. 
^  Sir  A.  Grant's  Edinburgh  University,  I,  pp.  12,  16,  1884  ed. 


Ill]  LIFE   IN    ST    ANDREWS    UNIVERSITY  47 

four  chaplains,  and  twenty  scholars.  The  regulations  as  to 
admission  by  examination,  meals,  dress,  and  internal  economy 
generally,  are  laid  down  with  great  minuteness. 

An  examination  of  the  statutes  of  St  Leonard's  leaves  an 
impression  that  the  religious  exercises  of  a  monastery  and  the 
observance  of  fasts  and  festivals,  rather  than  literature  and 
intellectual  culture,  were,  to  begin  w^ith,  the  aims  of  the  founders. 
It  is  no  doubt  laid  down  that  "  thrice  in  the  week  after  dinner, 
a  lecture  shall  be  delivered  on  grammar,  or  poetry,  or  oratory, 
or  one  of  the  books  of  Solomon,  and  that  before  proceeding  to 
the  degree  of  '  Master,'  let  the  students  perfect  themselves  in 
logic,  physic,  philosophy,  metaphysics  and  ethics,  and  in  one,  at 
least,  of  the  books  of  Solomon."  Beyond  this  there  is  little  or 
nothing  about  the  regulation  of  studies,  the  treatises  to  be  read, 
or  how  and  by  whom  the  students  were  to  be  taught  the  above 
five  subjects  necessary  for  the  degree  of  '  Master.'  The  regula- 
tions as  to  the  admission  of  entrants  were  simple,  but  terribly 
trying  for  the  examiner  who  had  to  furnish  a  certificate  of 
the  candidate's  competence^ 

It  was  provided  in  the  statutes  of  St  Leonard's  that  children 
of  the  nobility  and  others  who  wish  to  acquire  knowledge  and 
virtue  will  be  admitted,  provided  they  in  no  way  infringe  the 
statutes.  If  they  choose  to  eat  with  the  other  students,  they 
must  submit  to  the  same  discipline,  and  be  liable  to  the  same 
punishment.  They  must  not  wear  a  secular  dress,  nor  garments 
too  much  cut  away,  nor  caps  of  a  green,  scarlet,  blue,  yellow  or 
any  showy  colour,  but  their  garments  must  be  such  as  becomes 
grave  and  clerical  persons.  They  must  not  let  their  beards  or 
hair  be  too  long,  but  be  so  cut  that  a  great  part  of  the  ears  shall 
be  seen. 

The  contrast  between  the  absence  of  details  for  the  regulation 
of  study  and  the  minuteness  with  which,  especially  on  feast,  but 

'  The  entrant  must  be  of  pure  life,  correct  morals,  well  versed  in  grammar,  a  good 
writer,  and  a  good  singer.  No  one  unless  he  is  found  competent  in  these  respects 
shall  be  recommended  by  the  examiners  for  admission  "  as  the  examiners  themselves 
shall  hope  to  escape  the  divine  condemnation,  and  no  one  shall  be  received  by  bribe, 
or  entreaty,  or  the  interest  of  any  religious  or  secular  person  (unless  he  is  found 
qualified)  under  the  penally  of  eternal  damnation."  Lyon's  Hist,  of  St  Andrews, 
II,  pp.  245—6. 


48         FIRST  PERIOD  TO  1 560.      ST  ANDREWS  UNIVERSITY      [CH. 

also  on  other,  days,  every  hour  had  its  occupation  in  religious 
exercises  either  in  chapel  or  at  meals,  is  noteworthy.  A  general 
awakener  for  every  week  aroused  the  college  at  5  o'clock  from 
Easter  to  September,  and  at  half  past  6  from  September  to  Easter. 
The  kind  and  quantity  of  food  and  drink,  the  order  in  which 
students  in  turn  should  serve  at  table,  the  reading  of  the 
Scriptures  or  some  moral  book,  and  the  singing  of  the  Epistle  at 
the  common  table,  are  all  exactly  specified.  "  Especially,"  say 
the  statutes,  "  we  forbid  any  female  to  enter  our  college  except 
the  common  laundress,  who  shall  not  be  less  than  50  years  old^ 
because,  says  St  Jerome,  no  one  can  serve  God  with  all  his  heart 
who  has  any  transactions  with  a  woman....  No  one  shall  go  out 
of  college  without  leave  from  the  Principal  or  one  of  the  regents  ; 
nor  shall  they  grant  this  leave  to  any  one  but  on  good  grounds, 
and  without  having  received  proofs  of  his  purity  and  integrity." 

All  this  savours  more  of  a  monastery  than  a  university,  and 
in  these  modern  days  is  somewhat  difficult  of  comprehension. 
But  has  it  not  its  good  side  ?  The  founders  were  true  to  them- 
selves and  to  their  conception  of  life,  though  it  was  unquestion- 
ably narrow.  With  the  corruption  and  formality  of  their 
worship  we  have  no  sympathy,  and  we  think  the  methods  by 
which  they  endeavoured  to  elevate  life  and  keep  it  pure  were 
mistaken  ones,  but  their  aim  at  combining  life  and  religion  was 
good  and  worthy  of  respect.  Some  of  the  regulations  about 
games  and  physical  exercises  are  quaint.  "  Once  a  week  the 
students  with  one  of  the  masters  shall  repair  to  the  links  (ad 
campos),  and  having  there  practised  honest  games  shall  return  in 
time  for  vespers.  If  field  exercises  be  allowed  more  than  once 
a  week  (which  however  we  object  to,  says  the  statute)  then  let 
the  students  take  to  some  honest  labour  in  a  garden  or  else- 
where^." 

In  the  acts  of  the  Faculty  of  Arts  (which  was  practically 
the  university)  there  is  one  which  forbids  two  or  three  weeks  to 
be  spent  in  connection  with  cock-fighting  {i7i  procuratione 
galloruni),  but  there  was  no  objection  to  two  or  three  days  being 
so  spent.     Acta  Fac.  Artiiim,  f  i  b. 

By  another,  students   were  allowed   to  engage  in   hawking 

^  Fraser's  Magazine,  June,  1882,  by  Principal  Shairp,  p.  716. 


Ill]  THE    OLD    LEARNING    AND   THE    NEW  49 

provided  they  went  in  their  ordinary  dress,  and  not  in  borrowed 
secular  costumes.     Acta  Fac.  Artiuvt,  f.  15  a'. 

The  third  college  was  founded  by  Archbishop  James  Beaton 
in  1537,  and  further  endowed  and  remodelled  by  Archbishop 
Hamilton  in  1553.  By  a  bull  received  from  the  Pope  it  was 
dedicated  to  the  Blessed  Mary  of  the  Assumption.  It  was 
endowed  for  the  maintenance  of  thirty-six  persons,  among  whom 
were  included  professors  of  philosophy,  rhetoric  and  grammar. 
The  regulations  and  aim  were  similar  to  those  of  St  Leonard's. 
These  three  colleges  came  into  existence  at  no  great  distance  of 
time  before  the  Reformation  ;  their  intellectual  food  for  some 
time  was  medieval  theology  and  philosophy;  they  were  meant 
to  strengthen  the  Church  and  act  as  a  bulwark  against  heresy 
and  schism.  But  gleams  of  enlightenment  had  begun  to  pierce 
the  darkness  of  the  middle  ages.  By  the  fall  of  Constantinople 
Greek  books  and  Greek  teachers  long  known  already  in  Italy 
had  been  dispersed  through  a  great  part  of  Europe.  In  pur- 
suance of  the  study  of  Greek  Italy  preceded  England  by 
about  80  years.  St  Paul's  School,  London,  founded  in  15 12, 
is  the  oldest  humanistic  school  in  England.  Its  statutes  in 
15 18  enjoin  that  the  Master  shall  be  "learned  in  good  and 
clean  Latin,  and  also  in  Greek,  if  such  may  be  gotten."  It 
may  be  inferred  from  this  proviso  that  Greek  scholars  were 
not  plentiful  in  this  country.  At  the  end  of  the  15th  century 
the  Aldine  press  at  Venice  had  sent  out,  among  other  editions, 
the  whole  of  Hesiod,  large  portions  of  Theocritus,  Aristotle  and 
Aristophanes,  and  early  in  the  i6th  century  Thucydides, 
Sophocles,  Herodotus,  Xenophon,  Euripides  and  Demosthenes 
followed  in  quick  succession.  In  England  Greek  had  got  a 
footing  in  some  schools  in  1560,  but  it  was  not  till  1590  that  we 
find  in  the  statutes  of  Harrow  School  precise  directions  for  the 
teaching  of  Greek-.  This  awakening  was  accompanied  by  other 
influences.  Printing  had  been  invented  and  America  discovered. 
Only  the  slumberer  and  sluggard  could  remain  irresponsive  to 
the  stimulation  of  the  freer  and  more  intellectual  atmosphere 
around  them.     But,  "  b}'  a   strange  irony  of  fate  two  of  these 

^  Rashdall,  voL  n,  part  11,  pp.  673,  675. 

*  Jebh,  Cambridge  Modcnt  History,  vol.  I,  pp.  562,  582. 

K.   E.  4 


50         FIRST  PERIOD  TO  1560.      ST  ANDREWS  UNIVERSITY      [CH. 

colleges  became,  almost  from  the  first,  the  foremost  agents  in 
working  the  overthrow  of  that  church  which  they  were  founded 
to  defends"  This  was  especially  true  of  St  Leonard's,  of  which 
the  famous  Scottish  reformer  Alexander  Alane  (Alesius)  was 
one  of  the  earliest  students. 

Other  names  outstanding  in  history  besides  that  of  Alane 
can  be  recorded  as  students  of  St  Andrews,  such  as  George 
Buchanan,  David  Lyndsay  of  the  Mount,  the  martyr  Patrick 
Hamilton  and  John  Knox.  Following  the  example  and  almost 
surpassing  the  ability  of  his  teacher,  Major,  Knox  taught  with 
remarkable  success  early  in  the  i6th  century  the  scholastic 
philosophy  from  the  barren  subtleties  of  which  he  was  soon  to 
shake  himself  clear.  About  the  same  time  Buchanan  was  a 
student  in  St  Andrews  after  having  spent  two  years  in  Paris. 
This  was  followed  by  another  journey  to  France  where  he 
graduated  at  the  Scots  College  and  was  appointed  professor  in 
the  College  of  Ste  Barbe.  Soon  after  his  return  to  Scotland  in 
1535  he  incurred  the  anger  of  Cardinal  Beaton  for  his  attack  on 
the  Franciscan  monks,  and  was  imprisoned  in  the  castle  of 
St  Andrews.  There  is  therefore  reason  for  the  statement  made 
by  Mr  Lyon  in  his  history  of  St  Andrews,  that  "  even  up  to  the 
time  of  the  Reformation  the  university  continued  to  be,  as  it 
always  had  been,  the  principal  one  in  Scotland." 

It  had,  as  we  have  seen,  first  as  a  professor  and  ultimately  as 
Principal  of  St  Salvator's  College,  John  Major  or  Mair,  the  most 
famous  teacher  of  medievalism  in  Europe.  Much  that  he 
taught  and  wrote  was  entirely  out  of  touch  with  the  intellectual 
movements  aroused  by  the  new  teachings  of  the  revival  of 
learning.  Though  not  a  Protestant,  he  was  a  churchman  of 
very  advanced  opinions  on  religious  subjects.  He  was  opposed 
to  the  supremacy  of  the  Pope  in  temporal  matters,  to  the 
ambition  and  greed  of  the  Court  of  Rome ;  he  thought  that  the 
opinion  of  a  general  council  should  have  more  authority  than  a 
deliverance  by  the  Pope ;  and  that  the  number  of  monasteries 
should  be  reduced.  In  ordinary  politics  his  views  were  distinctly 
democratic.  He  denied  the  divine  right  of  kings,  holding  that 
they  derive  their  power    from    the  people,  who  are  the  only 

^  Principal  Shairp  in  article  above  quoted,  p.  717. 


Ill]  THE   BEGINNINGS   OF   THE    REFORMATION  5 1 

proper  source  of  authority,  and    that  when   kings  rule  badly 
they  may  be  deposed. 

The  number  of  students  for  whom  maintenance  was  provided 
in  the  three  colleges  was  about  sixty.  To  teach  this  handful 
of  students  seventeen  clergymen  (some  of  whom  were  beneficed) 
were  employed,  and  who  for  their  work  as  teachers  in  the 
university  received  no  emoluments.  In  1557  the  total  number  of 
entrants  in  the  university  was  thirty-one,  and  in  1558  only  three, 
the  reason  of  this  serious  reduction  recorded  in  the  Rector's  book 
being,  "  this  year  on  account  of  the  tumults  caused  by  religion 
very  few  came  to  this  university."  In  1560  and  for  three  years 
afterwards  the  number  was  about  thirty.  The  Rector's  book 
does  not  show  the  total  number  of  students  in  any  one  year.  It 
only  shows  the  number  incorporated  for  the  first  time  in  any 
year.  The  numbers  given  above  would  therefore  require  to  be 
largely  increased  in  order  to  give  even  approximately  the 
total  number  of  students  at  the  three  colleges  in  these  years. 

To  charge  the  St  Andrews  authorities  with  lack  of  zeal  or 
capacity,  as  the  cause  of  the  small  number  of  their  students, 
would  be  unfair.  The  circumstances  must  be  taken  into  account 
They  were  standing  at  the  parting  of  the  ways.  Medievalism 
though  weakened  was  not  killed.  St  Salvator's  was  looking  in 
one  direction,  St  Leonard's  and  St  Mary's  in  another.  The 
intellectual  life  of  the  middle  ages  depended  entirely  on  the 
organisation  of  the  Church,  and  the  acceptance  of  the  Church's 
standard  of  faith  was  for  one  section  imperative.  In  the  medi- 
eval university,  which  was  essentially  a  religious  institution,  the 
prosecution  of  truth  to  its  logical  conclusion  was  not  to  be 
expected  from  that  section,  for  it  was  compelled  to  confine  its 
efforts  to  proving  that  the  teaching  of  the  Church  could  be 
established  by  human  reasoning.  The  other  section  was  touched 
by  the  wider  and  ever  widening  streams  of  new  ideas  that  came 
with  the  renaissance  and  the  Reformation.  Scholastic  philosophy 
lost  its  hold,  and  for  them  was  practically  dead  by  the  end  of 
the  15th  century.  WMiat  more  natural  than  that  students,  in 
order  to  escape  from  bitter  dissensions  at  home,  should  seek  the 
quiet  of  universities  abroad  ? 

The  subjects  necessary  for  the  degree  of  Master  of  Arts  were 

4—2 


52     FIRST  PERIOD  TO  1560.     ST  ANDREWS  UNIVERSITY     [CH.  Ill 

the  same  as  in  all  medieval  universities,  viz.  grammar,  logic, 
rhetoric,  music,  arithmetic,  geometry  and  astronomy.  Unless 
St  Andrews  was  to  lag  behind,  all  this  must  be  changed  and 
adapted  to  the  new  conditions. 

While  there  is  apparently  a  slight  confusion  as  to  the  date 
when  Greek  was  first  taught  in  Scotland,  it  is  tolerably  certain 
that  it  was  taught  in  Montrose  and  Perth  early  in  the  i6th 
century.  But  in  Paris  in  1524  Buchanan  could  not  get  instruc- 
tion in  that  language,  and  it  had  no  recognised  place  there  till 
the  College  Royal  was  founded  in  1530  for  the  teaching  of  Latin, 
Greek,  and  Hebrew.  We  are  told  by  James  Melville  that  his 
uncle  Andrew,  on  entering  as  a  student  at  St  Andrews  in  1559, 
could  read  the  logics  of  Aristotle  in  Greeks  But  we  are  also 
told  on  the  same  authority  that  Andrew  Melville  found  Greek 
unknown  in  St  Mary's  College,  which  had  much  the  most 
complete  professoriate^  The  two  statements  are  not  necessarily 
contradictory.  We  know  that  Andrew  Melville  was  taught 
Greek  in  Montrose  by  a  Frenchman,  Pierre  de  Marsiliers.  But 
even  in  Cambridge  in  15 11  we  are  told  that  Erasmus,  with 
respect  to  his  Greek  class,  was  doomed  to  almost  complete 
disappointments  Greek  had  no  attractions  for  the  Cambridge 
students.  A  suspicious  savour  of  heresy  clung  to  the  reading 
and  teaching  of  Greek  and  was  not  got  rid  of  till  the  beginning 
of  the  17th  century.  There  appears  no  good  reason  for  regard- 
ing St  Andrews  as  less  progressive,  and  more  the  slave  of 
medievalism,  than  the  other  ancient  universities  of  Europe. 

The  foregoing  is  perhaps  a  sufficiently  detailed  account  of 
the  origin  and  progress  of  the  university  up  to  the  time  of  the 
Reformation.  Its  proceedings  will  form  the  subject  of  another 
chapter  when  the  second  branch  of  our  enquiry  from  the 
Reformation  to  1696  is  taken  up. 

^  Melville's  Diary,  pp.  24,  31,  ed.  1829.  ''■  Ibid.  p.  39,  ed.  1829. 

^  J.  B.  MuUinger's  University  of  Cambridge,  p.  493. 


CHAPTER   IV 

FIRST   PERIOD   TO    1560.     GLASGOW    UNIVERSITY 

When  the  University  of  St  Andrews  had  been  forty  years  in 
existence,  and  the  thirst  for  education  was  still  unslaked,  the 
distance  of  that  little  city  from  the  rest  of  Scotland  was  felt  to 
be  an  inconvenience  requiring  remedy.  The  epoch  moreover 
was  in  several  respects  very  favourable  for  the  founding  of 
universities.  The  schism  in  the  Romish  Church  at  the  end  of 
the  14th  century  led  to  a  large  increase  in  the  number  of 
universities  on  the  Continent.  Between  the  Pope  in  Avignon 
and  the  Pope  in  Rome  there  was  the  keenest  rivalry.  In 
their  anxiety  to  thwart  each  others'  schemes  and  make  good 
their  claim  to  superiority  in  the  pontificate,  both  lent  a  willing 
ear  to  petitions  from  whatever  quarter  they  came,  and  were 
ready  to  grant  Bulls  for  the  foundation  of  institutions,  on  which 
they  felt  the  success  of  the  Church  largely  depended.  The 
University  of  Paris  supported  the  Pope  in  Avignon,  in  which 
they  were  followed  by  Scotland,  as  already  mentioned,  while 
England  gave  its  support  to  the  Pope  in  Rome.  Scottish  students 
accordingly  were  received  at  the  English  universities  with  scant 
courtesy.  Further  it  is  not  matter  for  regret  or  reproach,  that 
the  Bishop  of  Glasgow  was  unwilling  that  his  diocese  should  lag 
behind  that  of  St  Andrews,  just  as  half  a  century  later  Bishop 
Elphinstone  was  actuated  by  a  similar  not  ignoble  ambition  to 
have  a  university  in  his  diocese  of  Aberdeen. 

In  1450,  the  papal  schism  having  ceased,  James  II  at  Bishop 
Turnbull's  suggestion  presented  to  Nicholas  V,  himself  a  great 
scholar  and  zealous  for  education,  a  petition  for  the  founding  of 
a  second  university  in  Glasgow,  "  where  the  air  was  salubrious 


54  FIRST   PERIOD   TO    1560.      GLASGOW    UNIVERSITY        [CH. 

and  provisions  were  plentiful,"  and  which  Major  in  his  History 
describes  as  a  "small  but  beautiful  city  situated  on  a  fine  river 
not  yet  deepened  by  art  so  as  to  be  a  channel  of  commerce." 
The  petition  was  at  once  granted,  giving  what  could  come  only 
from  Papal  authority,  the  privilege  of  conferring  degrees  and 
liberty  to  teach  all  over  the  worlds  In  1453  the  King  gave 
a  charter  granting  additional  privileges  exempting  the  authorities 
from  the  payment  of  taxes.  The  foundation  was  after  the 
model  of  Bologna,  but  it  imitated  to  a  large  extent  the  customs 
of  Louvain — then  and  still  a  famous  university — perhaps  because 
John  Lichton  its  Rector  was  a  Scotsman.  The  Bull  did  not 
specify  Bologna  as  a  model  for  Glasgow.  It  only  gave  to  the 
authorities  as  a  body  corporate  the  same  privileges  and  the  same 
ecclesiastical  supervision  by  the  Chancellor  as  that  famous  Italian 
university  had.  Bologna  was  especially  a  school  of  law — civil 
and  canon.  In  this  Glasgow  did  not  imitate  Bologna  to  any 
great  extent.  There  was  little  teaching  in  the  higher  Faculties, 
in  which  there  were  only  occasional  lectures,  attendance  on 
which  was  not  compulsory.  In  the  great  relative  prominence 
secured,  and  to  the  present  day  retained,  by  the  Faculty  of  Arts 
in  Glasgow  the  example  of  Louvain  and  other  continental 
universities  was  followed. 

The  Pope  wished  Glasgow  to  have  a  studiiim  generale  which 
should  "flourish  in  theology,  canon  and  civil  law,  and  in  any 
other  lawful  Faculty."  A  most  promising  start  was  made. 
Bachelors  were  presented  for  graduation  in  the  very  first  year 
after  the  foundation.  Lectures  in  other  Faculties  were  given, 
but  the  Faculty  of  Arts  was  the  only  one  which  had  a  definite 
shape  and  constitution.  It  elected  a  Dean,  made  laws  for  its 
government,  and  acquired  property  in  which  the  university  as  a 
body  had  no  share.  It  established  a  Paedagogium  and  used  the 
funds  of  the  Faculty  for  the  upkeep  of  the  building.  For  a  con- 
siderable time  the  university  as  a  body  acquired  no  property. 
"There  might  be,"  says  Mr  Innes,  "some  danger  of  the  Faculty  of 
Arts  absorbing  the  University." 

The  fact  that  candidates  for  graduation  presented  themselves 
in  the  first  year  of  its  existence  is  noteworthy,  and  shows  that 

^  Muniment  a,  '>  P»  3« 


IV]  THE    MODELS   FOR   THE    FOUNDATION  5  5 

the  foundation  of  the  university  was  in  response  to  a  popular 
demand.  These  candidates  must  have  had  training  in  scholastic 
philosophy  somewhere.  One  does  not  expect  a  degrec- 
givin^T  institution  to  spring  thus  suddenly  into  existence 
and  full  fruition.  It  may  be  taken  as  a  corroboration  of  a 
sentence  already  quoted  from  Mr  Mullinger  that  "universities  in 
the  earlier  times  had  not  infrequently  a  vigorous  virtual  existence 
long  before  they  obtained  legal  recognition." 

Glasgow  followed  the  example  of  Bologna  in  giving  to  the 
supposts  assembled  in  council  the  power  of  government,  and  in 
this  respect  differed  from  St  Andrews  and  Aberdeen,  where  the 
supposts  did  not  govern  directly,  but  through  representatives 
whom  they  had  elected.  As  Glasgow,  like  St  Andrews,  had  at 
first  no  endowment  from  which  teachers  could  be  paid,  the  Pope 
issued  a  Bull  authorising  all  the  teaching  staff  who  were  beneficed 
clergymen  to  reside  in  the  university  for  ten  years  or  even  longer 
if  they  continued  lecturing,  and  to  enjoy  the  emoluments  of 
their  benefices,  provided  they  arranged  for  the  work  of  their 
cures  being  properly  attended  to.  The  same  was  the  case  in 
Aberdeen.  In  Glasgow  some  lectures  were  given  in  theology 
and  law— canon  and  civil— but  the  backbone  of  the  teaching  was 
philosophy  and  humanity  both  of  which  were  regularly  taught. 

Few  words  have  thrown  off  such  a  number  of  correlatives 
with  widely  different  meanings  as  the  Latin  word  lunnanus,  the 
root-meaning  of  which  is  'peculiar  to  a  human  being.'  In  the 
middle  ages  an  education  which  had  Latin,  and,  later  on,  Latin 
combined  with  Greek  for  its  basis,  was  regarded  as  the  best 
source  of  what  ought  to  be  the  proper  aim  of  every  man,  viz. 
culture,  and  hence  in  Scotland  the  University  Chair  from  which 
Latin  was  taught  was  called  the  Chair  of  Humanity.  It  is 
difficult  to  explain  why  Greek  did  not  share  in  the  name,  unless 
it  be  that  Latin  had  long  the  precedence  of  Greek  in  point  of 
time  as  a  branch  of  education. 

Another  word  that  has  changed  its  meaning  in  its  passing 
from  the  middle  ages  to  the  present  day  is  bio'sar,  which 
formerly  meant  a  pupil  who  had  gained  in  some  way  by  favour 
or  examination  a  money-prize — a  bursa,  or  purse,  a  meaning 
which  it  still  has.     But  a  different  signification  has  been  added 


56  FIRST    PERIOD   TO    1560.      GLASGOW   UNIVERSITY        [CH. 

to  it.  The  bursar  of  a  college  is  he  who  has  charge  of  its 
-financial  matters. 

Regent  again  was  the  official  title  of  the  teacher  to  whose 
care  the  student  was  handed  over  for  instruction  and  guidance 
in  every  branch  of  the  curriculum.  This  custom  was  observed 
longer  in  some  universities  than  in  others,  but  it  was  nowhere 
permanent,  and  hence  in  many  cases  Regent  and  Professor  were 
interchangeable  titles. 

At  first  and  for  a  number  of  years  the  university  had  no 
building  set  apart  for  teaching  purposes.  Parts  of  the  cathedral 
and  probably  of  other  churches  were  so  used.  The  first  gift 
recorded  is  that  of  a  tenement  in  the  High  Street,  and  four  acres 
of  land  on  the  Dowhill  stretching  to  the  Molendinar  Burn.  This 
tenement  occupied  the  site  where  subsequently  the  old  college 
stood,  till  the  splendid  building  on  Gilmorehill  was  erected  in 
1869.  The  donor  was  Sir  Gavin  Hamilton  who  in  1455  granted 
a  charter  of  the  tenement  and  land  to  the  Prior  and  Convent  of  the 
Preaching  Friars  of  Glasgow^  With  Scottish  caution,  dictated 
possibly  by  doubts  as  to  the  future  success  of  the  university  (not 
without  foundation  as  it  turned  out)  he  stipulated  in  the  charter 
that  his  heirs  and  assigns  should  have  full  right  of  retaking  the 
same  into  their  own  proper  possession.  His  relative  Lord 
Hamilton  in  1460  made  the  gift  absolute,  and  thenceforth  it  was 
put  to  university  uses,  and  called  a  Paedagogium. 

The  burgh  records  of  Glasgow  do  not  go  further  back  than 

1573- 

The  Munimenta  of  the  university  have  a  threefold  classi- 
fication. 

(i)     Deeds  of  erection,  privileges,  and  endowments. 

(2)  Statutes  and  internal  discipline  of  the  university. 

(3)  Lists  of  members. 

These  documents  give  evidence  of  systematic  and  careful 
registration. 

Vol.  I  of  the  Munimenta  deals  with  privileges  and  property. 

From  145  I  to  1563  the  entries  (40  in  number)  are  recorded 
with  the  greatest  care  and  precision,  and  deal  with  gifts,  annexa- 
tion of  benefices,  exemption  from  taxation,  rent  and  repairs  of 

^  Munimenta,  i,  p.  9. 


IV]  THE    UNIVERSITY    RECORDS  57 

the  Paedagogium,  the  Chancellor's  claim  to  the  right  of  appoint- 
ment of  a  master  to  the  grammar  school,  and  his  prohibition  of 
private  schools  without  his  permission.  There  is  a  steady 
contribution  of  gifts,  of  lands,  tenements  and  money  to  the 
Faculty  of  Arts,  and  nothing  to  indicate  decay  or  deterioration  of 
the  institution,  till  the  letter  under  the  Privy  Seal  by  Mary  Queen 
of  Scots  of  date  i  563  sets  forth  its  ruinous  condition. 

Vol.  II  gives  an  account  of  the  statutes  and  internal  discipline 
of  the  university. 

The  example  of  foreign  universities  is  followed.  Students 
are  arranged  in  four  •  nations.'  Glottiana,  representing  Clydes- 
dale. Loudoniana,  the  rest  of  Scotland  (excepting  the  south 
and  west),  England  and  later  the  Colonies.  Rothesaiana,  the 
west  and  south  of  Scotland  and  Ireland,  and  Albania,  foreigners. 

Each  nation  elected  a  procurator  to  represent  it  in  the 
election  of  the  Rector  who  held  office  for  a  year,  but  could  be, 
and  often  was,  re-elected  for  several  years.  Vol.  II  contains  the 
lists  and  names  of  those  incorporated  with  the  university  for 
each  year  from  145 1,  when  it  was  founded,  up  to  the  time  of  the 
Reformation.  The  falling  off  in  the  number  of  incorporated 
members  is  very  striking.  Commencing  at  its  foundation  with 
60,  within  30  years  the  number  was  reduced  to  2.  To  this  a 
variety  of  circumstances  contributed.  The  greater  prestige  of 
foreign  universities,  the  comparatively  small  area  from  which 
students  could  be  supplied,  the  poverty  of  the  country — 
approaching  almost  to  a  state  of  famine — distraction  arising 
from  war  with  England,  a  nobility  disaffected  owing  to  the 
King's  appointment  of  low  favourites  to  positions  for  which  they 
were  not  qualified — all  these  were  hostile  to  university  success. 
But  probably  the  most  baneful  influence  was  a  badly  governed 
Church,  and  a  declension  in  the  morals  of  the  clergy  on  whose 
support  the  university  mainly  depended. 

Under  the  head  of  Annals  of  the  University  we  have  little 
more  than  records  of  the  names  and  election  of  a  succession  of 
Rectors,  the  dress  they  should  wear  when  going  through  the  city 
on  feast  days,  and  the  number  of  attendants  who  should  accom- 
pany them,  when  a  white  wooden  rod  should  be  carried  before 
them,  when  a  silver  one,  fees,  honoraria  to  masters,  calendar  of 


58  FIRST    PERIOD   TO    1560.      GLASGOW    UNIVERSITY        [CH. 

feasts  &c.,  but  scarcely  any  reference  to  the  course  of  study  to  be 
pursued.  In  1482,  1509  and  1522  three  several  Rectors  indicate 
dissatisfaction  with  the  state  of  matters;  one  proposing  a  renewal 
of  the  statutes  and  a  vigilant  maintenance  of  judicial  jurisdiction 
on  the  part  of  the  university,  the  calling  up  of  unpaid  rents,  and 
the  examination  of  certain  expenses  that  require  to  be  looked 
into.  Another  proposes  to  have  a  general  congregation  to  deal 
with  five  important  matters  which  need  consideration.  A  third 
proposes  that  bachelors  should  be  compelled  to  take  the  master's 
degree  within  a  fixed  time,  and  that  the  students'  rooms  should  be 
visited  nightly.  These  are  indications  of  a  feeling  on  the  part 
of  the  authorities  that  bracing  up  in  several  directions  was 
necessary. 

The  Annals  of  the  Faculty  of  Arts  have  a  register  apart  from 
those  of  the  university.  As  already  stated,  the  former  alone  had 
a  constitution  and  had  taken  definite  shape.  The  names  of  those 
who  took  degrees  were  recorded  in  its  register  and  not  in  that  of 
the  university.  There  seems  therefore  ground  for  Mr  Innes's 
remark  that  there  was  some  danger  of  the  Faculty  of  Arts 
absorbing  the  university,  or  becoming  an  independent  body. 

The  registration  generally  leaves  nothing  to  be  desired  in 
respect  of  fulness  and  precision,  and  gives  a  faithful  record  of 
the  doings  of  the  Faculty — the  names  of  those  admitted  to 
degrees,  post  rigorosum  exarnen,  and  of  the  examiners,  the 
appointment  of  successive  deans,  dress  of  students,  dues  for 
graduation,  audit  of  accounts,  debts  incurred  owing  to  famine, 
war,  and  pestilence,  and  references  to  books  to  be  read.  But  in 
1460  symptoms  of  decadence  begin  to  appear.  One  master  is 
charged  with  retaining  books  not  his  own,  another  with  using 
contumelious  language.  Laxity  in  discipline  and  work  is  a  subject 
of  complaint  in  1468.  Regents  report  that  no  students  have 
gone  through  the  course  of  study  necessary  for  the  degree  of 
bachelor.  In  1476  it  is  declared  indispensable  that  a  candidate 
for  the  degree  of  master  should  have  read  all  the  prescribed  books. 
Several  have  failed  to  do  so.  In  1482  some  have  not  taken  their 
master's  degree  at  the  proper  time  on  account  of  the  scarcity  and 
dearness  of  provisions.  Masters  are  fined  for  non-attendance  at 
congregations.     Alexander  Erskyne,  son  of  Lord  Erskyne,  took 


IV]  EARLY   DECADENCE   OF   THE    UNIVERSITY  59 

the  degree  of  bachelor  with  great  magnificence  and  expense  {qui 
ct  gloriosissimion  action  aicbravit  et  solvit  ingentes  expcusas). 
It  does  not  appear  whether  this  is  recorded  for  blame  or  approval. 
A  student  not  qualified  according  to  the  statutes  is  admitted  to 
his  trials  for  the  master's  degree  at  the  entreaty  of  certain 
masters.  No  master  in  future  is  to  prefer  such  a  request  on  pain 
of  a  fine.  Some  masters  fail  to  lecture  as  required  by  the 
statutes,  others  disregard  the  admonition  of  the  Dean.  In  1501 
owing  to  the  plague  there  was  no  lecture  during  most  of  the 
year.  Between  1509  and  1535  there  is  no  entry  in  the  Miini- 
metita.  All  this  affords  clear  evidence  of  the  relaxed  efforts  of 
a  moribund  institution.  This  is  probably  the  stage  in  its  history 
on  which  Mr  Innes  remarks  "  This  was  the  state  of  things  when 
we  lose  sight  of  the  university  and  its  members  in  the  storm  that 
preceded  the  Reformation.  Even  before  that  time  the  university 
seems  to  have  fallen  into  decay.  The  words  of  the  Queen's 
letter  in  1563  are  scarcely  to  be  accounted  for  by  any  sudden  or 
recent  calamity.  'Forsamekil  as  within  the  citie  of  Glasgow  ane 
college  and  universitie  was  devisit  to  be  had  quhairin  the  youthe 
mycht  be  brocht  up  in  letres  and  knawlege,  the  commoune  welth 
servit,  and  verteu  incressit — of  the  quhilk  college  ane  parte  of 
the  sculis  and  chalmeris  being  bigeit,  the  rest  thereof,  alsweill 
duellings  as  provisioune  for  the  pouir  bursouris  and  maisteris  to 
teche  ceissit,  sua  that  the  samyn  apperit  rather  to  be  the  decay 
of  ane  universitie  nor  ony  wyse  to  be  recknit  ane  establisst 
foundatioun'.'" 

Ten  years  after  this  the  building  of  the  Paedagogium  is  said 
to  be  ruinous,  and  discipline  extinct.  Mr  Innes  continues  "But 
though  thus  fallen  the  stiidinvi  gcncrale  still  kept  up  the  skeleton 
of  its  constitution.  The  very  last  transactions  recorded  before  the 
Reformation  show  us  the  University  met  in  full  convocation  in 
the  Chapter- House  of  the  Cathedral,  on  its  statutory  day  of  the 
feast  of  St  Crispin  and  Crispinian — its  four  nations  electing  their 
'intrants'  or  procurators — the  four  intrants  electing  the  Rector  of 
the  university,  and  his  four  deputies,  the  promotor  or  procurator 
and  bursar — and  members  admitted  to  the  university  as  a  defined 
and  distinct  body,  and  according  to  the  ancient  constitution  and 

^  Preface  to  Muuimenta,  p.  xiv. 


60  FIRST   TERIOD   TO    1560.      GLASGOW    UNIVERSITY        [CH. 

practice:  while  the  Faculty  of  Arts  held  its  congregation  in  the 
crypt,  at  the  altar  of  St  Nicholas,  and  there  elected  their  Dean 
and  their  examinators,  and  recorded  the  'proceeding'  of  the 
year's  students — now  sadly  reduced  in  numbers — for  their 
degrees \"     There  were  only  three  bachelors. 

It  seems  warrantable  to  infer  from  this  that  the  Faculty  of 
Arts  had  little  in  common  with  the  rest  of  the  university.  The 
former  seems  to  have  been  the  only  part  of  the  institution  that 
acquired  property,  and  to  have  used  it  solely  for  its  own  purposes. 
The  relation  in  which  they  stood  to  each  other  is  not  clear. 
While  the  property  acquired  belonged  to  the  Faculty  of  Arts 
and  was  employed,  among  other  purposes,  for  the  maintenance 
and  repairs  of  the  Paedagogium,  we  find  in  the  annals  of  the 
university  a  suggestion  that  the  dilapidated  condition  of  the 
law  schools  should  be  put  right,  that  unpaid  rents  should  be  re- 
covered, and  certain  expenses  looked  into,  thus  indicating  an 
interest  in  transactions  more  strictly  within  the  province  of  the 
Faculty  of  Arts.  We  find  also  that  Elphinstone,  afterwards  Bishop 
of  Aberdeen,  was  Dean  of  the  Faculty  of  Arts  in  1471  and  Rector 
of  the  university  in  1474,  which  shows  some  connection  between 
the  two  portions  of  the  institution.  It  is  recorded  in  the  annals 
of  the  Faculty  of  Arts  that  a  regent,  Walter  Bunche,  was  in  1478 
dismissed  for  incompetence,  and  in  the  annals  of  the  university 
there  is  an  entry  in  1490  bearing  that  the  regents  in  the  Faculty 
of  Arts  are  to  be  compelled  to  carry  out  the  provisions  of  the 
foundations  of  their  chaplainries.  It  is  probable  that  the 
university  as  a  body  took  the  initiative  in  the  first  as  it  did  in 
the  second  case,  but  the  independent  action  of  the  Faculty  of 
Arts  in  other  respects  makes  it  difficult  to  determine  in  what 
respect  and  to  what  extent  it  was  subordinate  to  the  university 
as  a  body. 

It  cannot  be  claimed  for  Glasgow  University  that  for  the  first 
hundred  years  of  its  existence  it  had  a  successful  career.  In  the 
15th  century  the  Faculty  of  Arts  was  eminently  flourishing.  A 
brave  show  was  made  on  their  feast  days  by  processions  of 
masters,  graduates  and  students  through  the  streets  carrying 
flowers  before  adjourning  to  the  banquet   in  their  college,  the 

'  Preface  to  Munimenta,  p.  xv. 


IV]  PREDOMINANCE   OF   THE   FACUI.TV   OF   ARTS  6l 

Faculties  of  Theology  and  Law  being  unrepresented.  Before 
long  there  was  evidence  of  decay.  The  absence  of  endowments 
sufficient  to  secure  the  regular  services  of  a  body  of  competent 
teachers  and  the  indifference  of  a  succession  of  Bishops  and 
Chancellors,  whose  leanings  were  ecclesiastical  rather  than 
academic,  produced  a  relaxation  in  the  efforts  of  men  of  high 
ability  and  literary  eminence  who,  in  other  circumstances, 
could  have  done  much  to  maintain  the  reputation  and  promote 
the  success  of  the  university.  She  could  however  point  to  some 
alumni  of  great  distinction — Elphinstone,  Knox,  Spottiswood, 
and  Cardinal  Beaton,  and  to  at  least  one  eminent  teacher — John 
Major  the  historian,  and  one  literary  man  of  note,  Robert 
Henryson.  Its  marvellously  improved  condition  under  the 
vigorous  superintendence  of  Andrew  Melville  will  be  dealt 
with  in  the  second  branch  of  our  subject. 


CHAPTER   V 

FIRST   PERIOD    TO    1560.     ABERDEEN    UNIVERSITY 

The  forty-four  years  which  separate  the  founding  of  the 
Universities  of  Glasgow  and  Aberdeen  were  little  favourable  to 
educational  progress.  Twenty-eight  are  covered  by  the  reign  of 
James  III  whose  hands  were  kept  more  than  full  by  an  unbroken 
struggle  against  powerful  and  rebellious  nobles  whose  chief 
grievance  against  him  was  that  he  was  interested  in  art  and 
literature.  His  favourite  friends  who  were  hanged  over  Lauder 
Bridge  were  almost  all  people  of  culture.  They  were  hanged  by 
Archibald  Bell-the-Cat  whose  character  in  respect  of  culture  is 
quite  fairly  expressed  by  Scott's 

"Thanks  to  St  Bothan  son  of  mine 
Save  Gawain  ne'er  could  pen  a  line." 

Though  there  was  no  concentrated  public  action  with  respect  to 
education  till  1494,  the  century  that  can  lay  claim  to  such 
literature  as  the  Kingis  Quair,  Christis  Kirk  on  the  Grene, 
and  the  poems  of  Blind  Harry,  Dunbar,  and  Henryson  has  no 
cause  to  be  ashamed.  From  Dunbar's  Lainent  for  the  Makaris 
it  is  clear  that  a  very  large  part  of  the  literary  production  of 
that  age  is  lost. 

On  Elphinstone  becoming  Bishop  of  Aberdeen  he  found  in 
existence  a  sUidium  generate  of  humble  pretensions,  which 
probably  suggested  the  idea  of  a  third  university  in  that  city. 
With  the  cordial  co-operation  of  James  IV,  whose  full  confidence 
he  enjoyed,  he  succeeded  in  his  project.  The  King  forwarded  to 
Pope  Alexander  VI  a  request  for  sanction  for  the  erection.  This 
was  freely  given  and  a  Bull  was  issued.     In  the  preamble  to  the 


CII.  V]  ABERDEEN    EDUCATION    IN'    EAKI.V   TIMES  63 

Bull,  which  is  too  long  to  quote  at  length,  the  Pope  gives  his 
reason  for  granting  it,  viz.  that  the  King  had  presented  a  petition, 
desiring  to  improve  the  condition  of  his  people,  especially  in  the 
northern  parts  of  his  kingdom,  where  there  are  places  cut  off 
from  the  rest  by  arms  of  the  sea  and  high  mountains  ;  that  the 
people  living  there  are  ignorant  and  almost  barbarous,  owing  to 
their  distance  from  a  university,  that  proper  men  cannot  be 
found  for  preaching  and  administering  the  sacraments  ;  that  the 
city  of  Old  Aberdeen  is  near  these  places  and  suitable  for  a 
university,  where  all  lawful  faculties  could  be  taught  both  to 
ecclesiastics  and  laymen,  who  would  thus  acquire  the  most 
precious  pearl  of  knowledge,  and  so  promote  the  well-being  of 
the  kingdom  and  the  salvation  of  souls. 

It  can  scarcely  be  doubted  that  tiic  terms  of  this  petition 
greatly  exaggerated  the  extent  to  which  barbarism  and  the 
absence  of  education  prevailed  in  the  north  and  east  of  Scotland. 
In  the  1 2th  and  subsequent  centuries  there  were  schools  in 
Aberdeen.  More  than  a  hundred  years  before  this  petition  was 
presented,  Barbour  Archdeacon  of  Aberdeen  wrote  his  Brus 
in  the  vernacular.  In  Aberdeen  Fordun  the  historian  was 
a  chantry  priest.  It  may  be  fairly  presumed  that  both  wrote  for 
an  educated  people,  who  had  some  ajjpreciation  of  literature.  A 
more  certain  proof  of  this  is  Barbour's  taking  students  to  study 
at  Oxford  and  Paris.  The  Legends  oj  the  Saitits — a  MS.  in  the 
Cambridge  University  Library — is  clearly  an  Aberdeen  produc- 
tion of  the  15th  century.  It  is  to  the  last  degree  unlikely  that, 
in  view  of  the  possession  of  schools,  monastic  or  other,  for  three 
centuries,  the  priesthood  were  so  unlettered  as  to  be  unable  to 
conduct  the  services  of  the  Church  with  efficiency.  The  moun- 
tains and  arms  of  the  sea  are  very  real  obstacles  to  the  spread 
of  education,  and  arc  with  us  still,  but  they  are  not  insuperable 
and  seem  here  unduly  pressed. 

Cosmo  Innes's  comment  on  this  ma\'  be  quoted. 

"Centuries  before  the  era  of  our  oldest  University,  the  whole 
fertile  land  of  Scotland  was  occupied  by  the  same  energetic 
tribes,  whether  Saxon  or  Danish,  who  colonised  England. 
Towns  w^ere  built  wherever  a  river's  mouth  gave  a  haven  for 
small  ships  in  the  dangerous  coast.     Trade  was  carried  on  with 


64         FIRST   PERIOD   TO    1560.      ABERDEEN    UNIVERSITY      [CH. 

the  kindred  people  of  Flanders,  Holland  and  Normandy  ;  and 
the  hides  and  wool  of  our  mountains,  the  salmon  of  the  Dee  and 
the  Tay,  and  the  herring  of  our  seas,  were  exchanged  against  the 
cloths  of  Bruges,  the  wines  of  Bordeaux  and  the  Rhine;  and 
the  table  luxuries,  as  well  as  the  ornaments  of  dress  and  art, 
which  found  admirers  among  us  long  before  we  appreciated  what 
are  now  counted  the  comforts  of  life.  A  trading  and  friendly 
intercourse  with  the  continental  nations  would,  of  itself,  go  far  to 
prove  some  intelligence  and  education^" 

In  connection  with  the  statement  that  Elphinstone  on  his 
arrival  in  Aberdeen  in  1495  found  in  existence  a  stiidium 
generate  of  humble  pretensions,  it  is  necessary  to  refer  to  John 
Hardyng's  Chronicle  (p.  423  Ellis's  edition),  in  the  15th  stanza  of 
which  we  find  the  following: 

Than  ryde  Northeast  all  alongest  the  see, 

Ryght  from  Dunde  to  Arbroith  as  I  mene. 

Than  to  Monrosse,  and  to  Barvye, 

And  so  through  the  Meernes  to  Cowy  as  I  wene, 

Then  xii  myles  of  moore  passe  to  Aberdyne, 

Betwyxt  Dee  and  Done  a  goodly  cytee, 

A  merchaunt  towne  and  universytee. 

His  history  is  not  above  suspicion,  but  it  is  certain  that  he 
was  sent  on  confidential  missions  to  Scotland  by  Henry  V  and 
Henry  VI  whose  reigns  cover  the  period  from  141 3  to  1461, 
and  that  he  spent  over  three  years  in  the  country. 

"  The  precise  date  when  Hardyng  visited  Scotland  cannot  be 
determined;  but  it  must  have  been  early  in  the  reign  of  Henry  V. 
His  Chronicle,  written  in  his  advanced  age,  was  originally 
intended  for  the  special  behoof  of  Richard,  Duke  of  York.  As 
it  was  not  completed  in  its  final  form,  however,  till  York's  death, 
Hardyng  presented  it  to  his  son  Edward  IV^." 

However  untrustworthy  he  may  be  in  some  respects,  we  have 
on  a  subject,  about  which  he  had  no  motive  for  deliberate 
falsehood,  a  statement  of  the  existence  of  a  university  in 
Aberdeen  seventy  years  before  Elphinstone  found  only  a  studinm 
generale  of  humble  pretensions.  A  probable  explanation  is,  that 
it  is  another  example  of  what  seems  to  have  been  the  case,  as 

^  Fasti  Aberdonenses,  p.  iv. 

"^  Hume  Brown's  Early  Travellers  in  Scotland,  p.  20,  ed.  1891. 


V]  THE   SCOTLAND   OF   JAMKS    IV  65 

already  mentioned,  at  the  foundation  of  Glasgow  University, 
that  there  was  in  the  northern  city  a  learned  corporation  having 
a  vigorous  virtual  existence  long  before  it  obtained  legal 
recognition  as  a  university.  This  is  perhaps  a  feasible  ex- 
planation, but  it  is  further  to  be  observed  that  if  the  building 
was  not  completed  till  the  reign  of  Edward  IV  (1461-1483) 
this  brings  us  not  very  far  off  Elphinstone's  date.  We  have 
however  still  to  account  for  Hardyng's  "  goodly  cytee  and 
merchaunte  towne."  Here  we  are  met  by  a  conflict  of  authorities 
— on  the  one  hand  Buckle,  who  describes  Scotland  at  this  time 
as  almost  a  wilderness,  and  on  the  other  Pedro  de  Ayala, 
a  Spanish  statesman  and  historian,  ambassador  at  the  court  of 
James  IV,  whose  residence  in  the  country  was  a  little  earlier  than 
Hardyng's,  and  who  speaks  of  it  as  fairly  prosperous,  inhabited 
by  a  people  hospitable,  courteous,  and  generally  in  comfortable 
circumstances.  Though  not  definitely  stated  it  is  highly 
probable  that  Aberdeen  was  included  in  this  general  survey, 
Dunbar,  on  James  and  Margaret's  visit  in  151 1,  in  a  poem  of 
nine  verses  of  eight  lines  each,  speaks  very  highly  of  Aberdeen, 
the  last  line  of  every  verse  being  "  Be  blithe  and  blissful  burgh 
of  Aberdeen." 

It  is  not  safe  to  say  more  than  that  De  Ayala's  account  so 
far  lends  probability  to  Hardyng's  statement.  It  may  be 
summarised  thus — The  towns  and  villages  are  populous.  The 
houses  are  all  good,  built  of  hewn  stone,  provided  with  excellent 
doors,  glass  windows,  and  a  great  number  of  chimneys,  and  well 
furnished.  The  people  are  handsome,  and  hospitable  to  foreigners, 
but  vain,  and  spend  too  much  in  keeping  up  appearances.  They 
are  courageous,  strong  and  active.  The  women  are  exceedingl)- 
courteous,  really  honest,  though  very  bold,  graceful  and  hand- 
some, absolute  mistresses  (jf  their  houses  and  even  of  their 
husbands,  and  take  the  management  of  income  and  expenditure. 
They  are  better  dressed  than  English  women,  especially  as 
regards  their  head-dress,  which  he  thinks  is  the  handsomest  in 
the  world.  He  ends  by  saying  "  There  is  as  great  a  difference 
between  the  Scotland  of  old  time  and  the  Scotland  of  to-day,  as 
there  is  between  bad  and  good'." 

'  Bergenroth's  Calendar  of  Spanish  Papers,  I,  pp.  169 — 175. 
K.  E.  5 


6()         FIRST   PERIOD   TO    1560.      ABERDEEN    UNIVERSITY       [CH. 

It  is  not  necessary  for  our  purpose  to  enter  into  a  detailed 
account  of  Elphinstone's  career,  beyond  saying  that,  after  making 
a  liberal  discount  from  the  marvellous  qualities  ascribed  to  him 
by  Boece, — who  is  characterised  by  Cosmo  Innes  as  "quite 
unembarrassed  by  facts," — he  was  a  man  of  very  great  ability  as 
a  statesman,  untiring  energy  and  devotion  as  a  churchman,  a 
conspicuous  benefactor  to  the  north-east  of  Scotland,  free  from 
the  slightest  taint  of  selfishness,  and  "  has  left  a  name  to  be 
reverenced  above  every  other  in  the  latter  days  of  the  ancient 
Scottish  Church ^"  In  Dalrymple's  translation  of  Leslie's  History 
a  fine  description  of  Elphinstone's  character  is  given  :  Part  III, 
152,  S.T.S.  His  experiences  in  Glasgow  and  Orleans,  and  as 
Rector  of  Glasgow  University,  eminently  fitted  him  for  giving  a 
promising  start  to  the  third  Scottish  University.  Glasgow  had 
so  far  not  been  successful.  In  its  constitution  he  discovered  two 
serious  defects.  "  No  salaries  were  provided  for  regular  lectures 
in  the  high  faculties,  and  there  was  not  sufficient  power  over  the 
university  to  remedy  disorders  when  these  became  general  and 
infected  the  whole  body-."  In  Aberdeen  both  these  defects  were 
remedied.  Salaries  were  provided  for  teachers  in  the  high 
faculties  by  handing  over  to  the  university  the  churches  of 
Arbuthnot,  Glenmyk  and  Abergarney  with  their  revenues,  and  a 
visitorial  power  was  established,  the  Chancellor  reserving  to  him- 
self a  dictatorial  authority  to  be  used  at  his  discretion  depending 
on  the  reports  given  by  the  visitors. 

Here  as  in  the  other  Scottish  universities  teaching  was  com- 
menced before  any  special  buildings  were  erected.  An  inscription 
over  the  door  of  King's  College  chapel  bears  that  the  masons  began 
to  build  early  in  1500.  The  name  given  to  the  erection  was  the 
College  of  St  Mary  in  nativitate  but  it  was  soon  thereafter 
named  King's  College,  and  was  completed  probably  in  1505. 

In  Elphinstone's  charter  of  foundation  wc  find  the  first  use 
of  Principalis  Collegii  as  a  designation  of  the  head  official,  who 
was  to  be  a  Master  in  Theology. 

In  the  universities  of  the  middle  ages  the  subjects  taught 
were  the  seven  liberal  arts  arranged  in  two  divisions.  In  the  first, 
called  the  trivium,  there  were  three  subjects.  Grammar,  Logic  and 

^  Fasti  Aberdonenses,  xi.  ^  Ibid.  xvi. 


V]  THE   ORGANISATION    OF    ELPHINSTONE's   COLLEGE         6/ 

Rhetoric,  and  in  the  second,  called  the  quadrivium,  there  were 
four,  Arithmetic,  Geometry,  Music  and  Astronomy.  This  was  the 
arrangement  in  Aberdeen,  but  in  addition  to  these  Canon  Law, 
Civil  Law,  Medicine  and  Theology  were  taught.  It  is  noteworthy 
that  Elphinstone's  scheme  was  at  least  in  theory  more  compre- 
hensive than  that  of  any  university  in  Britain,  prescribing  not 
only  the  three  Faculties,  Arts,  Theology  and  Law,  but  also 
Medicine,  for  which  no  professorship  was  established  in  Oxford 
or  Cambridge  till  near  the  middle  of  the  i6th  century,  nor  in 
Glasgow  till  1637,  nor  in  Edinburgh  till  1685.  Instruction  was 
given  in  Latin,  not  so  much  as  a  subject  of  academic  study, 
but  as  necessary  for  the  prosecution  of  the  higher  studies,  the 
teaching  of  which  was  all  conducted  in  Latin.  Philosophy  based 
on  the  treatises  of  Aristotle  was  the  backbone  of  the  teaching. 
From  the  scarcity  of  books,  dictating  from  the  text-books  was 
the  usual  method.  These  dictations  were  accompanied  by  notes 
supplied  by  the  teacher.  This  practice  continued  for  a  con- 
siderable time  after  the  supply  of  books  made  it  unnecessary. 

There  were  at  first  thirty-six  members  of  the  college  for 
whose  endowment  provision  was  made.  Six  of  these  were 
permanent  teachers  of  theology,  canon  law,  civil  law,  medicine, 
the  liberal  arts,  and  grammar  respectively.  Five  were  students 
of  theology  who  had  taken  their  degree  of  Master  of  Arts,  and 
combined  with  their  own  studies  in  theology  the  dut}'  of  regents, 
by  taking  part  in  the  teaciiing  of  thirteen  bursars  who  were 
proceeding  to  the  degree  of  Master.  The  other  twelve  were 
prebendaries  and  choristers  to  whom  less  important  duties  were 
assigned.  The  Chancellor  and  Rector  were  usually  not  resident 
members.  They  were  superior  to  all  the  other  members.  Their 
duties  lay  outside  the  details  of  teaching,  and  were  almost 
entirely  supervisory.  The  Bishop  ex  officio  was  named  Chan- 
cellor in  the  Bull,  the  Rector  was  elected  by  the  votes  of  the 
students  in  'nations'.'  It  is  noteworthy  that  the  Bull  introduced 
a  new  element  into  the  governing  body  of  the  university,  by 
giving    authority    for    the    admission    of    two    outsiders,    Privy 

^  The  earliest  record  of  the  King's  College  nations  is  Aberdeen,  including  Aberdeen 
and  Banff,  Angus,  including  Angus  and  Meams,  Moray,  all  north  of  the  Spey, 
Lothian,  the  rest  of  Scotland. 

5  —  2 


6S         FIRST    PERIOD   TO    1560.      ABERDEEN    UNIVERSITY      [CH. 

Councillors,  to  be  associated  with  the  Chancellor  and  Rector  in 
its  management.  The  experience  of  St  Andrews  and  Glasgow, 
which  enjoyed  complete  immunity  from  interference  by  states- 
men, perhaps  suggested  that  a  practical  lay  element  would  be 
valuable  for  keeping  within  bounds  the  too  ecclesiastical  views  of 
men  who  had  breathed  only  the  atmosphere  of  the  cloister. 

The  Chancellor  nominated  the  six  teachers  above  mentioned, 
the  chief  of  whom  was  the  Principal.  His  duties  were  to  teach 
theology  and  undertake  the  general  government  of  the  university. 
He  could  command  the  obedience  of  his  five  colleagues.  The 
theological  students  could  not  reside  more  than  seven  years. 
They  as  well  as  the  bursars  were  admitted  on  the  recommenda- 
tion of  the  Rector,  Principal  and  sub-Principal,  but  the  bursars 
could  reside  for  only  three  years  and  a  half,  at  the  end  of  which 
they  were  expected  to  graduate. 

As  compared  with  St  Andrews  and  Glasgow,  Aberdeen  was 
in  several  important  respects  fortunate.  The  Pope  and  the  King 
combined  to  promote  its  prosperity.  From  various  sources  to 
which  considerations  of  space  permit  only  a  general  reference 
funds  were  contributed.  The  revenues  of  a  hospital  which  had 
long  ceased  to  serve  the  purpose  for  which  it  was  founded  ;  the 
revenues  of  at  least  five  churches  ;  and  a  series  of  gifts  from 
private  individuals  were  turned  to  the  use  of  the  university. 
Taught  by  the  misfortune  of  the  two  older  institutions  in  having 
no  salaries  for  regular  lecturers,  Aberdeen  was  able,  through  the 
untiring  zeal  of  Elphinstone,  to  remedy  this  serious  defect.  This 
improvement  came  by  degrees.  It  was  at  first  a  regulation  in  all 
European  universities,  that  a  master  or  doctor  after  taking  his 
degree  was  bound  to  teach  for  a  certain  time.  As  there  were  no 
salaries,  teaching  could  not  be  satisfactorily  provided  in  any  other 
way.  After  a  time  however  this  was  changed  for  a  system 
according  to  which  graduates  received  a  fee  from  each  student, 
which  was  further  followed,  thanks  to  Elphinstone's  personal 
influence,  by  the  endowment  of  Aberdeen  with  an  amount 
sufficient  for  the  whole  body  of  professors,  within  less  than  a 
dozen  years  after  its  foundation. 

It  is  impossible  to  form  an  exact  estimate  of  the  amount 
which  a  sum  quoted  five  centuries  ago  would  represent  at  the 


V]  THE   STAFF   OF    KING'S   COLLEGE,   ABERDEEN  69 

present  day.  The  revenues  of  the  hospital  above  referred  to  are 
quoted  as  being  thirty  pounds.  On  this  Mr  Rait  remarks,  "It  is 
not  easy  to  say  what  this  sum  really  represented  ;  for  during  the 
14th  and  15th  centuries  both  King  and  parliament  were  con- 
stantly altering  the  coinage.  But  seeing  that  the  buying  power 
of  money  was  very  much  greater  then  than  now,  we  shall  not  be 
far  wrong  in  supposing  that  this  sum  would  represent  probably 
not  less  than  ;^300  at  the  present  day'."  It  is  at  any  rate 
reasonable  to  assume  that  emoluments  sufficient  to  induce 
scholars  of  the  reputation  of  Boece  and  Hay  to  accept  the 
principalship  were  fairly  on  a  level  with  those  of  modern 
principals  and  professors.  Unless  the  coinage  was  much 
depreciated — and  James  IV  was  in  this  respect  better  than  most 
Kings  of  his  race — they  were  very  considerably  more. 

In  addition  to  the  pious  zeal  of  Elphinstone  and  the  falling 
in  of  endowments,  Aberdeen  was  fortunate  in  having  as  its  first 
Principal  a  man  of  the  experience  and  ability  of  Boece.  Notwith- 
standing the  admitted  inaccuracy  of  his  history  and  his  tendency 
to  exaggeration,  he  had  many  admirable  qualities.  He  was  a 
fellow-student  and  friend  of  Erasmus,  had  felt  the  influence  of 
the  Renaissance,  and  infused  into  the  new  institution  a  healthi- 
ness of  tone  which  it  retained  after  his  death.  There  were 
however  other  circumstances  which  contributed  to  the  early 
.success  of  the  university.  The  awakening  effect  of  the  Renais- 
sance was  becoming  more  general,  and  the  art  of  printing  was 
first  introduced  into  Scotland  in  1507. 

On  this  Professor  Hume  Brown  remarks,  "The  art  had  not 
come  too  soon  to  Scotland,  for  among  the  other  glories  of  the 
time  was  the  appearance  of  men  of  learning  and  genius,  whose 
productions  form  part  of  the  national  inheritance.  To  the  reign 
of  James  belong  the  poems  of  William  Dunbar  and  Gavin 
Douglas,  who  in  any  age  must  have  been  among  the  first  literary 

fieures  of  their  time What  is  of  further  historical  interest 

both  in  Douglas  and  Dunbar  is  the  blending  in  them  of  the 
middle  age  that  had  gone  and  the  new  age  that  had  come.  By 
their  larger  view  of  life  and  their  more  direct  knowledge  of  the 


'  Rail's  Universities  of  Aberdeen,  p.  43. 


70         FIRST    PERIOD   TO    lS6o.      ABERDEEN    UNIVERSITY      [CH. 

classical  tradition  they  show  that  they  have  been  influenced  by 
the  revival  of  letters;  while  in  the  moments  when  they  remember 
the  profession  to  which  they  both  belonged,  they  fall  back  on 
that  cloistral  attitude  towards  men  and  things  which  is  the  note 
of  medieval  Christianity  \" 

As  already  mentioned,  in  the  universities  of  the  middle  ages 
every  graduate  was  taken  bound  to  teach  for  a  certain  time  if  his 
services  were  required-.  The  student  on  entering  did  not  neces- 
sarily find  professors  ready  to  teach  him  each  in  his  own  subject. 
He  was  obliged  to  place  himself  under  the  charge  of  a  qualified 
graduate,  who  carried  him  through  the  whole  of  his  studies  in 
all  subjects.  Such  graduates  were  as  already  mentioned  called 
Regents.  This  continued  to  be  the  regular  system  in  Scotland 
till  about  the  middle  of  the  i8th  century.  To  quote  Sir  William 
Hamilton,  "The  business  of  instruction  was  not  confided  to  a 
special  body  of  privileged  professors.  The  university  was 
governed,  the  university  was  taught,  by  the  graduates  at  large. 
Professor,  master,  doctor  were  originally  synonymous.  Every 
graduate  had  an  equal  right  of  teaching  publicly  in  the  university 
the  subjects  competent  to  his  Faculty,  and  to  the  rank  of  his 
degree ;  nay,  every  graduate  incurred  the  obligation  of  teaching 

publicly for  such  was  the  condition  involved  in  the  grant  of 

the  degree  itself. As  the   university  only  accomplished  the 

end  of  its  existence  through  its  Regents,  they  alone  were  allowed 
to  enjoy  full  privileges  in  its  legislature  and  government ;  they 
alone  partook  of  its  beneficia  and  sportulae'K" 

There  is  an  absence  of  exact  information  as  to  the  steps  by 
which  graduation  was  reached.  The  Bull  gives  to  the  Aberdeen 
authorities  the  power  of  granting  degrees  to  deserving  students 
after  due  examination,  but  what  constituted  a  due  examination 
is  not  specified.  There  is  nothing  more  definite  than  what  is 
stated  by  Professor  Laurie  in  his  Lectures  on  the  rise  and  early 
constitiition  of  universities.  "  Graduation  was,  in  the  medieval 
universities,  simply  the  conferring  of  a  qualification  and  right  to 
teach  (or  in  the  case  of  medicine,  to   practise),  given    after  a 

1  Hume  Brown'-s  History  of  Scotland,  vol.  I,  pp.  346— 7- 

'^  Burton's  Scot  Abroad,  i,  p.  257,  ed.  1864. 

»  Dissertations,  pp.  391—2  (Sir  Wm.  Hamilton). 


V]  GRADUATES   AS   TEACHERS,    REGENTS  Jl 

certain  length  of  attendance  at  a  university,  and  an  examination 
conducted  by  those  already  in  the  position  of  teachers'." 

On  the  death  of  Elphinstone  in  15  14  Bishop  Alexander  Gor- 
don became  Chancellor,  His  short  tenure  of  office  for  three  years 
and  delicate  health  prevented  him  from  exercising  any  important 
influence  on  the  Institution.  With  the  appointment  of  Bishop 
Gavin  Dunbar  as  Chancellor,  a  man  of  zeal  and  force  scarcely 
inferior  to  Elphinstone,  and  the  addition  of  fresh  funds  from 
various  sources,  some  consisting  of  money,  others  of  land,  and 
others  of  fishings,  the  new  Chancellor  was  enabled  to  complete  the 
most  of  the  schemes  which  Elphinstone  had  contemplated  but 
only  partially  carried  out.  In  1531  Dunbar's  Charter  was  con- 
firmed, involving  important  changes  in  the  constitution  of  the 
college  and  in  the  allocation  of  the  revenues.  The  number  of 
members  of  the  staff  was  increased  from  36  to  42,  and  their 
functions  were  altered,  some  having  been  found  to  work  unsatis- 
factorily. The  precise  character  of  these  changes  is  not  certainly 
known.  To  enumerate  them  in  detail  is  for  the  purpose  of  this 
work  unnecessary.  Suffice  it  to  state  that,  dictated  as  they  were, 
by  experience  of  former  defects,  they  were  found  to  be  on  the 
whole  improvements,  and  secured  for  the  university  such  an 
access  of  prosperity  as  caused  Ferrerius  in  1534  to  characterise 
it  as  "  the  most  celebrated  of  the  Scottish  universities  at  that 
time."  Mr  Rait  gives  the  following  estimate  of  Dunbars 
influence-. 

"  Gavin  Dunbar  deserves  a  very  high  place  among  the 
benefactors  of  King's  College.  The  piety  with  which  he  carried 
out  Elphinstone's  designs,  the  zeal  which  he  showed  in  his  office 
of  Chancellor,  and  the  liberality  with  which  he  gave  to  the  needs 
of  the  university  entitle  him  to  our  respect  and  gratitude.  In 
his  time  the  college  attained  its  highest  pre-reformation  success. 

The  preceding  century  had    been   rich   in   inventions  and 

discoveries,  the  inspiration  of  which  remained.     The  revival  of 
learning  had  awakened  Europe  from  the  '  dogmatic  slumber'  of 

the  middle  ages No  shadow  of  coming  evil  was  projected 

across   the  bus\-   scene.     The    college    was   in   the   full  tide  of 

'  Lecture  xu,  p.  214. 
-  Rait,  p.  79. 


•Jl         FIRST    PERIOD   TO    I560.      ABERDEEN    UNIVERSITY       [CH. 

prosperity  at  the  close  of  Dunbar's  life,  and  that  prosperity  was 
in  great  part  due  to  Dunbar  himself." 

Mr  Bulloch's  appreciation  of  Dunbar  is  not  less  hearty.  He 
speaks  of  him  as  the  true  successor  of  Elphinstone,  and  as 
putting  the  'coapstone'  on  the  Founder's  schemes  in  respect  of 
both  university  and  public  matters.  By  his  exertions  two  chap- 
lainries  were  endowed  in  the  Elgin  Cathedral,  and  a  hospital 
was  founded  in  Aberdeen  for  the  maintenance  of  old  men.  He 
drew  up  a  new  constitution  for  the  university,  and  by  limiting  the 
autocratic  power  of  the  Chancellor,  and  instituting  the  election 
of  the  Rector  by  'nations,'  he  broadened  the  administration  and 
increased  the  independence  of  the  university. 

From  the  appointment  of  Boece  as  Principal  at  the  beginning 
of  the  1 6th  century  to  1531  the  success  of  the  university  was 
all  that  could  be  wished.  Dunbar  had  the  benefit  of  the  hearty 
co-operation  of  his  friend  and  fellow-student  in  Paris,  William 
Hay,  as  sub-Principal,  and  of  the  zeal  and  ability  of  Vaus  as 
grammarian. 

There  is  nothing  more  inexplicable  in  the  history  of  the 
Scottish  universities  than  the  contrast  between  the  condition  of 
King's  College  in  1530  when  Dunbar  died,  and  in  1549  when 
Alexander  Galloway  made  his  rectorial  visit'.  There  is  very  little 
information  concerning  the  college  during  these  19  years,  and 
no  evidence  that  the  visitorial  power  assigned  to  the  Rector  was 
regularly  exercised.  Reference  has  already  been  made  to  the 
visit  of  James  V  and  his  suite  in  1541.  The  King's  high 
commendation  of  the  scientific  deputations  and  linguistic  skill  in 
Greek,  Latin  and  other  tongues  seems  to  indicate  a  maintenance 
of  zeal  and  hard  work  for  the  first  1 1  of  these  years,  even  after 
allowance  is  made  for  probably  generous  and  lenient  judgment 
on  the  part  of  the  King.  The  first  rectorial  visit  was  made  in 
the  following  year,  no  report  of  which  seems  to  have  been  given 
or  at  any  rate  recorded.     Unless  the  King's  praise  produced  a 

'  lie  was  a  man  of  the  highest  reputation  and  a  zealous  coadjutor  of  Elphinstone 
in  all  his  projects.  He  was  Rector  in  1516,  again  in  1521,  and  lastly  in  1549.  Boece 
gives  him  the  credit  of  having  discovered  that  geese  grew  from  shellfish,  for  on  a  visit 
to  the  Hebrides,  he  says,  "Galloway  openit  some  of  the  musyll  schells,  but  then  he 
was  mair  astonyt  than  before.  For  he  saw  no  fische  in  it  but  ane  perfect  shapen  fowl, 
small  and  great,  aye  effeiring  to  the  (quantity  of  the  schell." 


V]  EARLY    SUCCESS   AND    DECADENCE  73 

sudden  slackening  of  the  reins,  there  could  not  be  a  great  falling 
off  in  the  course  of  a  single  year.  The  next  rectorial  visit  was 
paid  by  Galloway  in  1 549,  and  in  his  report  we  have  an 
absolutely  appalling  and  inexplicable  account  of  wreck  and  ruin 
in  every  direction. 

What  havoc  these  seven  years  had  wrought !  The  high 
officials  were  grossly  negligent,  and  discipline  was  lax.  The 
most  stringent  provisions  of  the  foundation  were  disregarded. 
The  regents  had  to  a  large  extent  given  up  lecturing.  There 
were  scarcely  any  lay  students  ;  practically  instruction  was  pro- 
vided only  for  the  bursars  who  were  being  educated  for  the 
Church,  and  even  they  were  not  attending  to  their  work. 
Academic  dress  did  not  receive  enough,  while  the  growth  of 
hair  and  beards  received  too  much  attention.  The  authorities 
were  instructed  to  discourage  the  growth  of  hair  and  beards ^ 
Financial  matters  were  in  a  bad  way  ;  buildings  were  neglected 
and  falling  into  decay.  The  question  of  food  and  drink  required 
the  creation  of  a  new  official — an  Economus  who  was  specially 
charged  to  see  that  the  food  was  'new,'  and  whose  accounts  were 
to  be  examined  at  least  once  a  month  by  the  Principal  and  sub- 
Principal.  The  regulation  that  Latin  alone  was  to  be  spoken  in 
the  college  seems  also  to  have  been  broken  through.  No  female 
bakers  or  brewers  were  allowed  to  enter  the  college,  and  no 
women  were  to  be  present  at  religious  services.  The  students 
on  graduation  days  had  carried  their  ^au(/eam/is  proceedings  to 
discreditable  excess,  and  new  restrictions  were  necessary. 

Galloway  introduced  some  changes  in  the  course  of  study 
involving  a  partial  return  to  Elphinstone's  scheme.  He  ordained 
also  that  bursars  should  be  '  poor  persons '  who  were  to  be 
exempted  from  pa>-mcnts  of  an)-  kind,  but  candidates  for 
bursaries  were  to  be  examined  in  grammar  before  entrance. 
This  is  the  first  mention  of  a  bursary  competition.  How 
much  this  competition  which  has  come  down  to  our  own 
days  has  done  for  the  prosperity  of  the  universit\-  is  universally 

'  The  heinousness  of  the  misdemeanour  making  iliis  instruction  necessary  is  not 
specified,  but  that  it  formed  the  subject  of  one  of  the  fifty-one  suggestions  for 
improvement  indicates  the  drastic  character  of  the  visitation,  and  the  sincerity  of 
the  eftbrts  which  Galloway  made  for  putting  matters  right. 


74         FIRST    PERIOD   TO    1560.      ABERDEEN    UNIVERSITY      [CH. 

recognised.  Long  before  its  example  was  followed,  as  it  has 
been  during  the  last  thirty  years  or  so,  in  the  southern  universities, 
Aberdeen  secured  by  it  a  satisfactory  guarantee  for  such  prelimi- 
nary training  as  to  make  advanced  teaching  profitable  for  the 
great  majority  of  the  students. 

It  is  remarkable  that  in  the  records  of  Galloway's  visitation 
no  reference  is  made  to  the  violent  religious  conflict  which  had 
fairly  commenced  three  years  before  in  Scotland.  This  seems  to 
warrant  the  comment  of  Mr  Innes  that  the  members  of  the 
college  belonged  "  to  that  party  who  acknowledged,  and  would 
willingly  have  corrected,  some  of  the  corruptions  especially  in 
life  and  morals  which  had  crept  into  the  Church,  while  they  were 
not  prepared  to  take  the  great  leap  of  the  Scotch  reformers^." 
Aberdeen  seems  to  have  maintained  for  twelve  years  this  half- 
hearted attitude  towards  the  Reformation. 

Of  the  probable  changes  in  the  college  and  addition  of  fresh 
endowments  during  these  years  there  is  no  trustworthy  record. 
The  abstention  of  the  authorities  from  what  was  a  burning 
question  in  the  south  may  be  due  either  to  its  distance  from  the 
centre  of  the  mclce,  or  to  the  powerful  influence  of  the  Gordon 
family  who  were  strong  adherents  of  the  old  faith.  It  is  clear 
that  towards  the  end  of  the  i6th  century,  Aberdeen,  like  St 
Andrews  and  Glasgow  had  all  but  reached  the  vanishing  point. 
The  history  of  King's  College  after  1560  belongs  to  our  second 
period  where  it  will  be  resumed. 

The  outstanding  names  in  Scottish  literature  in  the  i6th  cen- 
tury are  Douglas,  Lyndsay,  Bellenden  and  Knox.  Their  writings 
afford  the  clearest  evidence  of  the  influence  of  the  revival  of  learn- 
ing on  their  thoughts  and  modes  of  expression.  Lyndsay  was 
much  the  most  popular.  This  was  due  to  his  perfect  command 
of  the  popular  speech,  to  his  intimate  knowledge  of  the  manners 
and  feelings  of  the  time,  and  to  the  geniality  of  his  fancy  and 
humour.  But  it  is  remarkable  that  his  vivid  portraiture  of  the 
lives  and  character  of  the  clergy,  against  whom  he  shot  his 
shafts  of  scathing  satire  in  his  Satyre  of  the  Thrie  Estaitis,  did 
not  bring  upon  him  the  vengeance  of  a  church  which,  though  it 
was  losing,  had  not  yet  lost  its  power. 

^  Fasti  Aberdonenses,  pp.  xxiv — xxv. 


V]  ABERDEEN    AM)    THE    REFORMATION  75 

From  the  preceding  accounts  that  have  been  given  of  the 
three  earh'est  universities  it  will  be  seen  that  they  have  many- 
points  in  common.  They  were  all  based  more  or  less  completely 
on  the  model  of  the  medieval  universities  of  the  Continent.  We 
have  seen  that  Papal  authority  was  required  and  obtained  for 
giving  them  as  learned  communities  self-government,  immunity 
from  taxation,  power  to  give  degrees,  and  liberty  to  teach  ;  that 
owing  to  the  poverty  of  the  country,  and  the  selfishness  of  the 
nobility  and  proprietors,  they  were  obliged  to  be  content  with 
these  powers  and  privileges  ;  that  they  were  dependent  on  the 
support  given  them  by  only  such  church  dignitaries  as  took  a 
warm  interest  in  them;  that  such  support  was  individual,  and  by 
no  means  so  general  as  might  have  been  expected  from  a  wealthy 
catholic  church  ;  that  their  aim  was  primarily  ecclesiastical  and 
secondarily  educational;  that  their  progress  and  expansion  were 
hindered  by  international  struggles,  and  that  at  last  in  1560  from 
a  variety  of  causes  their  very  existence  was  all  but  extinguished. 


CHAPTER   VI 

BURGH  AND  OTHER  SCHOOLS  FROM  1560  TO   1696. 

We  have  seen  in  our  first  period  that  up  to  the  Reformation 
the  Church  gave  effective  support  to  education.  Its  power 
however  was  on  the  wane  under  the  widening  influence  of  ideas 
which  ultimately  found  expression  in  the  Reformation.  On  the 
occurrence  of  that  great  event  a  large  part  of  the  patrimony  of 
the  Old  Church  was  appropriated  by  a  greedy  nobility  ;  the 
New  Church  succeeded  in  retaining  some  part,  but  little  was 
left  for  education.  If  in  these  circumstances  education  suffered, 
as  it  certainly  did,  it  was  not  due  to  indifference  on  the  part  of 
Knox  and  the  reformers.  While  the  reformed  church  can  justly 
claim  to  have  taken  the  first  energetic  step  in  promoting  general 
or  elementary  education,  the  paramount  aim  of  the  new  as  of 
the  old  church  was  not  so  much  education  for  its  own  sake,  as 
security  for  the  spread  and  establishment  of  what  they  considered 
true  religion.  Knox's  scheme,  set  forth  in  the  first  book  of 
discipline,  was  unfortunately  not  carried  out.  Its  marvellous 
wisdom,  comprehensiveness,  and  unity  of  plan  have  been  the 
admiration  of  educationists  during  the  three  and  a  half 
centuries  which  have  since  run  their  course ;  its  consummation 
is  to-day  the  goal  which  they  are  striving  to  reach,  and  which 
seems  nearer  attainment  than  at  any  previous  epoch. 

An  Act  of  Parliament  was  passed  in  1567  giving  the  Church 
power  to  appoint  superintendents,  to  whom  was  committed  the 


CII.  VI]  THE    KHFOKMKKS    AND    EDUCATION  "Jf 

duty  of  deciding  as  to  the  qualifications  of  teachers,  but  neither 
by  it,  nor  by  the  appeal  to  parUament  in  the  second  book  of 
discipline,  was  there  any  restitution  of  church  money  for  behoof 
of  schools'.  Even  the  Act  of  1592,  which  ratified  all  the  former 
Acts  dealing  with  church  judicatories,  confines  itself  to  the 
cheap  ordinance  that  all  schools  and  colleges  should  be  reformed, 
but  leaves  untouched  the  provision  of  means  by  which  reforma- 
tion is  to  be  effected-'. 

It  cannot  be  said  that  the  falling  oft"  in  education  can  be 
charged  against  town  councils  generally.  All  over  the  country 
they  had  great  difficulties  to  contend  with,  which  they  did  their 
best  to  overcome.  Even  in  Edinburgh  the  council  were  obliged 
to  make  use  of  a  part  of  St  Giles  as  a  school.  In  1560  we  find 
in  the  burgh  records  that  the  last  portion  of  the  church  was 
converted  into  a  school,  tolbooth,  prison  house,  and  clerk's 
chamber,  "  because  of  the  gret  inquietation  thai  half  had  in 
tymes  past  within  the  tolbooth  for  lack  of  rowme  to  minister 
justice. ..and  considerin  the  skant  of  prisoun  houssis  and  incom- 
moditie  of  thair  clerkis  chalmer,  and  for  inhalding  of  the  yeirlie 
main  of  the  samyn,  and  gret  soomes  of  money  debursit  for  thair 
scole.-.and  having  enough  of  rowme  in  the  kirk  to  make  a 
tolbooth, ...and  also  rowme  for  a  scole  for  thair  bairns... thai  all 
in  ane  voice  concludes,  decerns  and  ordaines  the  dene  of  gilde 
with  all  deligence  to  big  up  ane  stane  wall  &c.'"  Then  follow 
distinct  specifications  for  the  work. 

The  scheme  of  Knox  and  his  brother  reformers  contemplated 
the  establishment  of  first  a  school  in  connection  with  every  kirk 
or  parish,  in  which  the  ordinar}-  branches  and  Latin  should  be 
taught ;  second,  a  higher  school  or  college  in  cities  and  notable 
towns  ;  and  third,  university  instruction  for  those  who  showed 
aptness  for  learning.  Provision  was  to  be  made  for  competent 
masters.  The  rich  were  to  be  compelled  to  educate  their 
children  at  their  own  expense,  the  poor  who  could  not  pay  for 
their  education  were  to  be  supported  by  the  Church,  so  that  poor 
and  rich  alike,  if  they  were  of  "  good  engine,"  should  continue  at 

*  Act,   1567.  -  Act,   159:. 

*  Edinburgh  Biiro/i  Keconis. 


78       BURGH    AND   OTHER    SCHOOLS    FROM    1560   TO    1696     [CH. 

the  colleges  "  until  the  commonwealth  have  profit  of  them,"  and 
should  then  proceed  to  further  knowledge  at  the  university,  or 
be  sent  to  a  "  handicraft  or  other  profitable  exercise." 

That  Latin  is  set  down  as  one  of  the  subjects  to  be  taught 
in  the  ordinary  school  need  not  excite  surprise,  in  view  of  the 
fact  that,  at  this  time,  Latin — some  of  it  doubtless  sadly  wanting 
in  both  accuracy  and  purity — was  the  language  in  which  masters 
and  pupils  talked  to  each  other  in  the  process  of  teaching.  We 
are  not  shut  up  to  the  conclusion  that  Latin,  for  its  own  sake, 
was  a  subject  of  instruction  to  every  pupil  in  the  class,  which 
would  be  as  foolish  and  as  wasteful  of  valuable  time  then  as  now. 
We  have  seen  above  that  Knox  had  alternative  treatment  for 
pupils  of  different  capacity.  Those  who  have  aptness  for 
learning  are  to  proceed  to  further  knowledge  at  the  university, 
but  others  are  to  be  sent  to  a  handicraft  or  other  profitable 
exercise.  It  is  pretty  certain  that  Knox  did  not  intend  that 
the  embryonic  handicraftsman,  who  was  to  make  a  profitable 
exercise  of  his  life,  should  waste  his  time  in  grinding  at  Latin 
grammar.  He  knew  that  there  were  pupils  for  whom  university 
training  would  be  of  no  benefit  either  to  themselves  or  to  their 
country,  pupils  who  were  intended  by  nature  to  be  hewers  of 
wood  or  drawers  of  water,  and  whose  proper  and  unalterable 
sphere  of  action  was  handicraft  or  other  functions  subordinately 
intellectual. 

One  cannot  but  admire  the  patriotic  wisdom  of  that  other 
phrase  "  until  the  commonwealth  have  profit  of  them."  Have 
we  not  in  it  the  seed  of  that  growth  of  which  Scotland  is  justly 
proud — its  position  in  the  van  of  educated  nations — the  grand 
aim  of  education  as  being  not  position,  wealth,  and  other  objects 
of  reasonable  ambition,  that  have  however  a  savour  of  pardon- 
able selfishness  about  them,  but  the  profit  of  the  commonwealth  ? 

Knox's  estimate  of  the  importance  of  education,  as  the  surest 
foundation  of  national  prosperity,  recalls  the  opinion,  already 
quoted,  of  Ninian  Winzet.  Doughty  champions  both,  one  of  the 
old,  the  other  of  the  new  faith,  sufferers  both  at  the  hands  of 
those  who  opposed  them,  they  had  in  common  a  noble  concep- 
tion of  the  means  by  which  a  nation  was  to  gain  power  and 


VI]  KNOX    AND   WINZET   ON    EDUCATION  79 

pre-eminence.  Winzet  stated  his  views  in  general  tdrms,  but 
with  perfect  clearness.  Knox  furnished  a  definite  plan  by  which 
his  views  could  be  carried  out.  Thanks  to  remissness  on  the 
part  of  parliament  and  rapacity  on  the  part  of  the  nobles,  that 
plan  was  only  partially  successful.  All,  rich  and  poor  alike, 
were  to  receive  as  much  education  as  they  could  turn  to  profit- 
able use.  The  ascent  from  the  primary  through  the  secondary 
school  to  the  university  was  to  be  open  to  all  who  were  qualified 
by  natural  ability  to  make  it,  and  by  this  means  the  best  brain 
of  the  country,  from  whatever  class,  was  to  be  utilised.  In  the 
face  of  great  difficulties  this  aim  has  never  been  entirely  lost 
sight  of,  and  even  to  the  present  day  the  conception  is  more  or 
less  fully  realised.  Mad  parliament  been  more  patriotic,  and  the 
barons  less  greedy,  Scotland  would,  in  its  educational  system 
and  position,  have  been,  even  more  than  it  is,  the  envy  of  other 
nations. 

We  thus  see  that,  both  before  and  for  a  long  time  after  the 
Reformation,  the  Church  took  a  very  keen  interest  in  education. 
In  the  end  of  the  i6th  and  beginning  of  the  17th  century,  the 
General  Assembly  appointed  Commissions  for  establishing 
schools  and  supplying  funds  for  the  education  of  poor  scholars 
in  the  six  most  northern  counties^  It  also  made  most  vigorous 
but  unsuccessful  efforts  to  retain  or  regain  from  the  unscrupulous 
barons  parts  of  the  pious  foundations  made  to  schools  before 
the  Reformation.  It  protested  in  vain  against  the  secularisation 
of  the  patrimony  of  the  Church,  and  "  overtured  parliament  to 
erect  and  maintain  grammar  schools  in  all  burghs  and  other 
considerable  places,  on  the  ground  that  the  '  good  estate  of  the 
kirk  and  commonwealth  mainly  depended  on  the  flourishing  of 
learningV  "  and,  as  the  proper  sources  for  supporting  schools  had 
entirely  failed,  it  prayed  parliament  to  provide  other  means  so 
that  poor  children  who  are  of  "  good  engine  "  might  be  educated. 

The  Church  records  in  the  latter  half  of  the  16th  century 
abound  in  suggestions,  prayers,  and  complaints  to  Queen  Mary, 
and,  after  her  imprisonment  and  exile,  to  the  Regent  and 
Council,  as  to  the  application  for  the  support  of  education,  of 

^  Book  of  Ihc  i'ltizersol  Kirk,  pp.  34,  239. 
■•'  Act  of  Parli-iment,  1641,  v,  646. 


8o       BURGH    AND   OTHER    SCHOOLS   FROM    1560   TO    1696      [CH. 

rents,  of  ^'  sources  hitherto  devoted  to  idolatry  \"  and  the  necessity 
of  "  reforming- the  nobility  in  their  wrongful  using  of  the  patri- 
mony of  the  kirk  to  the  great  hurt  of  the  schools-."  The  Church 
meanwhile  did  not  confine  herself  to  appeals  for  restitution  of 
her  rights.  Scanty  as  were  her  means,  she  sent  from  her  own 
exchequer  liberal  contributions  for  salaries  to  teachers,  and 
education  for  poor  scholars.  The  session  records  up  to  the  end 
of  the  17th  century  of  Stirling,  Dunfermline,  Aberdeen,  Crail 
and  elsewhere  bear  testimony  to  payments  from  the  session-box 
for  these  purposes. 

As  this  was  the  attitude  of  the  Church  towards  the  schools,  it 
was  to  be  expected  that  she  should  have  a  large  share  in  their 
management.  This  was  so.  It  is  beyond  question,  that  from 
the  Reformation  to  the  passing  of  the  Act  of  1872,  the  appoint- 
ment of  masters  to  the  parish  schools  was  entirely  in  the  hands 
of  the  Church.  It  is  probably  safe  to  say  that  this  has  never 
been  disputed.  With  regard  to  burgh  schools,  it  cannot  be 
maintained  that  acquiescence  in  the  prerogative  of  the  Church 
was  so  complete.  It  is  however  certain  that  amid  the  alterna- 
tions of  supremacy,  resembling  the  game  of  battledore  and 
shuttlecock,  between  Presbytery  and  Episcopacy  from  1560  to 
1688,  the  party  for  the  time  being  in  power,  whether  presbyterial 
or  episcopal,  claimed  the  right  of  the  appointment  of  masters  for 
all  schools,  parish  and  burgh.  The  General  Assembly  in  its  day 
of  power  was  no  whit  more  persistent  in  its  contention,  than  the 
Bishop  and  Archbishop  when  they  had  the  upper  hand.  Between 
1638  and  1699  the  Assembly  passed  four  Acts  in  which 
superintendence  of  all  schools  and  the  appointment  of  teachers 
are  claimed  by  the  Church.  Nor  can  it  be  said  that  this  was  the 
outcome  of  clerical  arrogance.  They  could  point  to  Acts  of 
Parliament  showing  that  they  had  law  on  their  side.  In  Grant's 
Bicrgh  Schools,  p.  82,  we  have  abundant  evidence  that  this  was 
the  attitude  of  the  rival  churches.  "  The  Act  of  Parliament 
1567  provides  that  in  all  schools  to  burgh  and  landward,  no  one 
may  instruct  the  youth  but  such  as  shall  be  tried  by  the 
superintendent    or   visitor    of    the    kirk".      The    Act   of    1584 

^  Book  of  the  Universal  Kirk,  p.  17-  ^  Ibid.  p.  i-,},. 

^  Acts  of  Parliament,  Hi,  24,  38;  ratified  1581,  c.  i,  in,  210. 


VI]        STATUTORY   QUALIFICATIONS   OF   SCHOOLMASTERS        8 1 

requires  masters  of  schools  and  colleges  to  conform  with  humility 
to  the  acts  commanding  obedience  to  the  bishops  or  commis- 
sioners appointed  to  have  spiritual  jurisdiction  in  the  diocese, 
under  pain  of  deprivation'.  The  Act  of  1662  forbids  any  one 
to  teach  a  public  school  or  be  pedagogue  to  the  children  of 
persons  of  quality,  without  a  licence  of  the  ordinary  of  the 
diocese-.  The  Act  of  1693  declares  that  all  schoolmasters  shall 
be  liable  to  the  trial,  judgment,  and  censure  of  the  presbyteries 
for  their  sufficiency,  qualification  and  deportmentl  In  the  Act 
of  1707  which  was  incorporated  in  the  Treaty  of  Union  it  is 
provided  that  no  master  shall  bear  office  in  any  school  without 
submitting  to  the  discipline  of  the  Established  Church^" 

It  is  unnecessary  to  accumulate  further  proof  that  the  Church 
claimed  and  parliament  sanctioned  this  superintendence  of  all 
public  schools.  But  jurisdiction  was  not  confined  to  public 
schools.  Private  tuition  at  home,  and  education  in  Roman 
Catholic  countries  abroad,  were  subject  to  the  same  limitations. 
Parents  who  sent  their  children  to  countries  where  there  was 
danger  of  infection  from  the  "  leprosy  of  poperie  "  were  ordered 
to  bring  them  home,  on  pain  of  excommunication^  Private 
tutors  to  the  sons  of  noblemen  were  obliged  to  declare  solemnly 
before  the  presbytery  that  they  had  never  worshipped  in  any 
but  Protestant  Churches**. 

Throughout  the  later  i6th  and  the  17th  centuries  the 
exercise  of  the  kirk's  jurisdiction  over  schools  in  respect  of  both 
appointment  and  dismissal  of  masters  was  seldom  called  in 
question.  The  state  of  matters  in  the  i8th  century  will  be  dealt 
with  in  a  future  chapter.  The  town  councils  began  soon  after 
the  Reformation  to  take  more  interest  in  schools,  but  the  kirk 
and  burgh  authorities,  as  a  rule,  worked  amicably  into  each 
other's  hands.     Between  the  two  a  give-and-take  spirit  seems  to 

'  Act  of  Parliament,  1584,  c.  2.  iii,  347.  -  Ibid.  1662,  c.  13,  vii,  379. 

»  Ibid.  1693,  c.  38,  i.\,  303.  *  //./,/.  1707,  c.  6,  XI,  403,  414. 

'  Book  of  the  Universal  Kirk,  p.  437. 

*  Presbytery  Records  of  Aberdeen.  The  tutor  of  the  Master  of  Caithness  had  spent 
two  years  in  France  and  could  give  only  a  modified  declaration  on  this  point,  which 
was  liowever  accepted.  He  had  a  pardonable  desire  to  look  on  Royahy,  and  l)eing 
unable  to  "  have  the  sight  of  the  King  except  at  the  messe,  he  went  there,  but  gave  no 
reverence  to  the  messe  which  he  abhors." 

K,  E.  6 


82        BURGH    AND   OTHER   SCHOOLS   FROM    1560   TO    1696    [CH. 

have  been  developed,  the  councils  recognising  what  the  kirk  had 
done  and  was  doing  for  education,  and  the  kirk  seeing  the 
benefit  of  carrying  the  councils  with  her,  as  being  both  able  and 
willing  to  supplement  her  all  too  scanty  resources.  It  is  not 
necessary  to  give  minute  details  of  individual  instances.  It  is 
perhaps  sufficient  to  say  that  in  upwards  of  twenty  cases  there 
is  evidence  that  hearty  co-operation  characterised  what  may  be 
called  the  dual  control  of  the  councils  and  the  Church  party, 
whether  that  party  was  at  the  time  Presbyterial  or  Episcopal. 

In  some  cases  the  council  appointed  the  master,  but  in 
almost  every  instance  the  intimation  of  the  appointment  was 
followed  by  such  phrases  as  "  by  the  admission  of  the  kirk," 
■"after  being  tryit  by  the  kirk,"  "being  examined  by  the  pres- 
bytery," "  on  the  report  of  the  minister,"  etc. 

While  the  foregoing  remarks  represent  the  general  relation 
of  the  councils  to  the  kirk  in  the  matter  of  the  patronage  of 
schools,  we  find  some  indications  in  the  17th  century  of  the 
awakening  effect  of  the  Reformation, — instances  in  which  instead 
of  acquiescence  in,  we  find  resistance  to  ecclesiastical  control. 
The  Reformation  unquestionably  contributed  largely  to  the 
transference  of  patronage  from  the  Church  to  municipal  authority. 
The  extent  to  which  the  claims  of  the  Church  were  resisted 
depended  on  circumstances — the  respective  tempers  of  church- 
men and  councils,  and  the  pliability  or  obstinacy  of  the  teacher. 
In  many  cases  the  council  appealed  to  the  Church  for  help  and 
advice,  in  others  the  authority  of  the  Church  was  flatly  denied. 
In  1580  the  teacher  of  the  Canongate  school  handed  over  to  the 
council  of  the  burgh  "  as  his  undoubted  patrons "  his  office, 
though  he  had  received  the  appointment  for  life  from  the 
commendator  of  Holyrood'. 

Fifty  years  later  the  council  of  Perth  unanimously  declared 
that  the  kirk  session  had  no  power  to  appoint  a  master  of  the 
grammar  school,  and  gave  the  office  to  John  Row.  At  his 
induction  the  council  invited  the  ministry  to  be  present,  but 
they  refused^. 

'  Register  of  the  Canongate. 

*  Burgh  Records  of  Perth.     They  refused  "  being  niychtele  miscontent  because  the 
counsall  appointed  him  haillelie  by  thair  own  aduys,  quhairupone  the  ministrie  daylie 


VI]        TOWN    COUNCILS  JEALOUS  OF   CHURCH   CONTROL  83 

Other  similar  instances  are  recorded  of  the  jealousy  with 
which  town  councils  resisted  any  attempt  at  encroaching  on 
their  right  of  appointing  teachers,  but  they  are  comparatively 
few.  In  1620  the  council  of  Burntisland  were  so  anxious  to 
establish  their  prescriptive  right  in  this  respect,  that  for  many 
years  they  insisted  on  the  master  annually  going  through  the 
ceremony  of  handing  to  the  council  at  the  end  of  the  year  the 
keys  of  the  school  and  dwelling  house,  as  an  acknowledgment 
that  they  were  the  patrons.  The  keys  were  of  course  ceremoni- 
ously handed  back  at  once'.  While  there  is  little  to  admire  in 
this  very  parochial  and  ostentatious  assertion  of  proprietorship, 
one  sees  in  it  evidence  of  healthy  interest  in  education  which 
might  be  turned  to  good  account. 

So  early  as  the  17th  century  the  conversion  of  a  burgh 
school  into  a  burghal  and  parochial,  and  ultimately  into  a  purely 
parochial  school,  had  commenced  in  Inverury  and  Jedburgh. 
In  the  former  the  master  was  at  first  paid  entirely  from  the 
common  good  of  the  burgh,  but  in  the  course  of  a  year  a  new 
master  was  appointed  whose  salary  was  paid  partly  from  the 
common  good  and  partly  from  voluntary  contributions.  This 
continued  for  forty-two  years,  when  the  school  became  entirely 
parochial-.  In  Jedburgh  the  grammar  school  was  under  the 
sole  management  of  the  council,  but  in  1656  the  heritors  were 
admitted  to  the  joint  management,  an  equal  number  on  each 
side  forming  a  committee  for  the  election  of  the  teacher^ 

Schools  partly  burghal  and  partly  parochial  are  found  in 
unimportant  burghs  where  one  school  was  sufficient,  and  where 
the  council  and  landward  heritors  shared  the  expense  of  main- 
tenance. This  conversion  or  combination  was  usually,  but  not 
always,  arranged  amicably  in  respect  of  both  payment  of  salary 
and  appointment  of  master.  In  some  cases  the  patronage  was 
alternatively  exercised  by  the  heritors  and  minister  at  one  time, 
and  by  the  minister  and  council  at  another.  As  a  rule,  the  town 
councils  were  more  active  in  the  election  of  teachers  and  manage- 

raillit  out  of  the  pulpett  aganes  the  provest,  baillies,  and  coun.sall,  and  thairefter  did 
complene  to  the  preshiterie." 

^  Report  on  Burgh  Schools,  li,  95. 

'  Burgh  Records  of  Inverury.  ^  Burgh  Records  of  Jedburgh. 

6—2 


84        BURGH    AND   OTHER   SCHOOLS   FROM    1 560   TO    1696    [CH. 

ment  than  were  the  kirk-session  and  heritors.  No  good  purpose 
would  be  served  by  going  more  fully  into  the  details  of  separate 
cases.     Those  mentioned  may  be  taken  as  typical. 

Just  as  monopolies  were  granted  for  the  sale  of  ordinary  com- 
modities, so  prohibition  of  sending  boys  to  any  but  the  public 
and  music  schools,  which  has  already  been  referred  to,  was 
prevalent  all  over  Scotland  from  early  times,  and  continued  till 
near  the  beginning  of  the  19th  century.  It  does  not  appear  that 
this  was  due  to  presumed  or  proved  incompetence  in  the  private 
teacher,  but  simply  because  such  private  teaching  was  a  hindrance 
to  the  prosperity  of  the  recognised  public  school.  There  may 
have  been,  and  probably  were,  then  as  now,  a  number  of 
incompetent  teachers  whose  qualifications  were  inferior  to  those 
of  the  public  schoolmaster,  but  there  were  no  doubt  among 
them  men  of  the  requisite  ability  to  whom  the  town  councils 
might  with  propriety  have  given  license  to  teach.  Their  refusal 
indicates  not  so  much  a  general  zeal  for  education,  as  an  over- 
weening desire  for  the  success  of  the  schools  under  their 
management,  which  has  a  savour  of  unwholesome  trades- 
unionism.  The  prohibition  was  only  partially  successful 
notwithstanding  the  pains  and  penalties  threatened,  and  in 
many  cases  enforced,  on  those  who  disobeyed  the  injunctions  of 
the  council.  The  penalties  varied  in  different  districts — in  some 
cases  a  payment  of  20  shillings,  in  others  ^5  and  i^io  Scots  to 
the  master  of  the  grammar  school  for  every  child  taught  in  an 
adventure  school.  Sometimes  the  risk  of  having  "the  Scole  durris 
steikit  [shut]  up  "  was  added. 

The  disobedience  of  even  ex-provosts  and  ex-bailies  was 
punished  with  the  same  rigour.  Two  such  dignitaries  in  Peebles 
were  each  fined  i^io  Scots,  and  ordained  to  lie  in  prison  till  the 
fines  were  paid.  In  Banff,  banishment  awaited  those  who 
contravened  the  orders  of  the  council.  The  education  of  girls 
seems  to  have  received  less  attention,  but  schools  kept  by 
women  in  which  girls  were  taught  to  "  sew  and  wyive  pearling 
allanerlie'"  were  not  so  stringently  prohibited.  The  catechism 
and  psalm-book  seem  to  have  been  taught  to  boys  in  schools 
kept  by  women  and  in  the  sang  schools.     The  maximum  age  at 

^  This  means  that  sewing  and  knitting  of  stockings  alone  were  taught. 


VI]      BURGH   COUNCILS   CLAIM    MONOPOLY   IX    EDUCATION      85 

which  boys  were  allowed  to  remain  at  these  elementary  schools 
varied  greatly,  being  in  some  districts  six,  and  in  others  seven, 
eight,  and  even  ten.  As  a  rule,  as  soon  as  they  could  read  the 
psalm-book,  they  had  to  remove  to  the  public  school. 

This  narrowness  of  view  and  disregard  of  the  claims  to 
general  education  by  the  poor  was  sure  to  come  to  an  end,  as 
we  shall  see  it  did,  when  we  come  to  treat  of  the  i8th  century. 
That  private  schools  continued  to  exist  notwithstanding  the 
prohibitions  ordained,  and  the  penalties  inflicted,  and  amid  the 
shock  and  turmoil  of  war,  and  political  and  ecclesiastical  com- 
motion, furnishes  a  remarkable  proof  of  the  value  attached  to 
education  by  the  average  citizen.  The  persistency  and  courage 
with  which  he  faced  and,  to  a  large  extent,  overcame  municipal 
ordinances  challenge  our  highest  admiration. 

While  we  may  legitimately  question  or  even  condemn  the 
municipal  zeal  which  strove  to  suppress  private  schools  as  mis- 
directed, we  cannot  in  view  of  the  frequency  and  rigidity  of 
their  visitations  and  examinations  doubt  its  genuineness.  In 
these  there  was  a  powerful  combination  of  ecclesiastical,  municipal 
and  academic  elements.  Acts  of  Assembly  and  of  Parliament^ 
were  passed  fixing  the  time,  method,  and  object  of  visits  by 
presbyteries,  heritors,  town  councils,  and  universities  to  grammar 
schools  and  Scots  schools,  Scliolae  triviales  I'criiaculae.  These 
latter  were  probably  the  representatives  of  the  schools  which 
Knox  aimed  at  establishing  in  connection  with  every  kirk  or 
parish.  The  time  of  visit  varied.  In  some  cases  it  was  half- 
yearly,  in  others  quarterly,  in  others  monthly.  The  visitors 
were  charged  with  the  duty  of  seeing  that  pious  and  qualified 
masters  were  appointed,  and  scandalous  and  negligent  ones 
removetl.  They  had  also  to  see  that  they  signed  the  Confession 
of  Faith.  The  revenues  of  the  school  passed  under  review,  and 
rules  for  their  management  were  laid  down-. 

The  visitations  authorised  by  the  town  councils  seem  to  have 
been  more  searching  in  their  character  than  those  ordered  by 
the  kirk  and  parliament,  and  were  commenced  witii  varying 
expedition  in  different  burghs.     Glasgow  led  the  wa)-  near  the 

^  Acts  of  Parliament,  1655,  1658,  vr.  Part  11,  826,  876. 
-  Ibid.  1690,  c.  25,  IX,  163. 


86        BURGH   AND   OTHER   SCHOOLS   FROM    1560   TO    1696     [CH. 

end  of  the  i6th  century.  Stirling  and  Aberdeen  seem  not  to 
have  moved  in  the  matter  till  early  in  the  17th,  Perth  not  till 
1630,  Edinburgh  not  till  1640,  and  Paisley  in  1646.  The  reports 
of  these  visitations  vary  much  in  fulness.  In  some  cases  it  is 
simply  intimated  that  a  visitation  was  made.  The  account 
given  of  a  Glasgow  visitation  near  the  end  of  the  i6th  century 
shows  the  character  and  extent  of  the  proceedings  in  that  city 
and  possibly  in  other  burghs.  It  is  provided  that  men  of 
eminence  shall  twice  a  year  examine  the  grammar  school. 
These  examiners  were  appointed  by  the  council  and  the  uni- 
versity. The  master  intimated  the  coming  examination  to  the 
scholars  twenty  days  before.  Each  class  was  examined  in  the 
work  done.  To  the  two  higher  classes  were  dictated  themes  in 
the  vulgar  tongue  which  were  to  be  translated  into  Latin  and 
given  to  the  examiners.  After  the  examination  the  pupils  who 
had  not  done  well  were  reproved  and,  if  unfit  to  be  promoted, 
were  put  back,  while  those  who  had  done  well  received  signal 
honours  and  rewards.  Next  day  the  Scots  school  was  to  be 
examined,  and  intimation  given  to  those  who  had  been  found 
fit  to  commence  the  study  of  Latin.  In  this  shortened  account 
from  the  original  in  the  Archives  of  Glasgow  we  have  evidence 
of  the  existence  of  a  most  important  function  of  examination, 
which  at  some  time  during  the  course  of  the  four  succeeding 
centuries  was  departed  from,  and  within  comparatively  recent 
years  restored  in  the  classification  of  Glasgow  High  School, 
Edinburgh  Academy,  and  elsewhere — the  promotion  from  a 
lower  to  a  higher  class  by  proved  fitness  for  advancement. 

Much  the  same  account  is  given  of  the  examination  of 
Edinburgh  High  School,  with  the  addition  that  when  the 
scholars  are  dismissed  and  the  examiners  have  reported  how 
the  youth  have  profited,  the  master  and  doctors  shall  be  re- 
moved, and  enquiry  made  as  to  whether  any  fault  can  be  found 
with  them.  In  Paisley  and  Aberdeen  the  visitation  was  once 
a  month.  Of  the  regulations  under  eight  heads  found  in  the 
Aberdeen  registers  it  is  not  necessary  to  say  more  than  that 
they  exhibit  the  thoroughness  with  which  these  visitations  were 
conducted.  One  of  them  may  be  referred  to  as  setting  an 
example  which  in  these  modern   days  might  be  followed  with 


VI]  VISITATION    AND   ORGANISATION  8/ 

advantage :  "  there  shall  be  public  acting  at  every  quarterly 
visitation  that  the  scholars  may  learn  boldness  and  a  vivacity 
in   public  speaking'." 

It  would  not  be  difficult  to  find  objections  to  such  frequent 
visitations,  but  we  have  in  them  a  proof  of  keen  interest  and 
careful  supervision  on  the  part  of  the  municipal  authorities. 

In  every  large  school  there  were  school  laws  written  in 
"  gryt  letteris  on  a  brod,"  so  that  there  should  be  no  pretence 
of  not  knowing  them.  They  covered  the  entire  work  of  both 
masters  and  pupils.  All  schools  were  opened  and  closed  with 
prayer,  as  many  are  now.  As  already  mentioned  Latin  was  the 
language  usually  spoken  in  both  school  and  playground.  Other 
languages  might  be  used,  but  not  the  vernacular.  This  was 
a  rule  faithfully  observed  till  the  early  part  of  the  i8th  century. 
The  injunction  to  use  no  expression  that  was  not  classical  was 
doubtless  but  indifferently  observed. 

Throughout  the  i6th  and  17th  centuries  the  hours  of  school 
attendance  were  inordinately  long,  commencing  at  5  or  6  in  the 
morning  and  continuing,  with  a  break  of  two  hours  during  the 
day,  till  6  in  the  evening.  To  give  a  detailed  account  of  different 
districts  is  unneces.sary.  It  is  sufficient  to  say  that  everywhere 
they  were  so  long  as  to  be  pronounced  intolerable  in  this  age  of 
societies  for  preventing  cruelty  to  children.  Modifications  were 
gradually  introduced,  but  even  in  the  i  8th  century  the  attendance 
in  some  of  the  grammar  schools  was  not  less  than  eight  hours. 
The  hours  of  the  English  master  were  less  oppressive.  To  the 
Tow^n  Council  of  Dunbar  is  due  the  credit  of  setting  the  example 
of  half-holidays. 

In  some  cases  there  was  compensation  for  long  daily  attend- 
ance in  two  hours  of  recreation  on  Tuesdays  and  Thursdays,  and 
on  Saturdays  from  two  o'clock  for  the  rest  of  the  day^  Occasional 
holidays  on  special  occasions  such  as  the  visit  of  a  distinguished 
stranger  were  given  in  old  times  much  as  they  are  now,  and  while 
the  Candlemas  offering  was  a  school  institution  it  was  followed 
by  a  holiday.  There  were  other  occasions  of  holidaws  in  con- 
nection with  the  cutting  of  bent  or  rushes,  with  whicii,  on  the 

1  Grant's  Burgh  Schools,  p.  150.     By  a<7?«^  probably  only  recitation  is  meant. 
^  Report  on  Burgh  Schools,  I,  16. 


88        BURGH   AND   OTHER   SCHOOLS   FROM    1560   TO    1696    [CH. 

score  of  comfort  and  cleanliness,  the  earthen  floor  of  the  school 
was  strewed.  Several  holidays  were  allowed  for  this.  Early  in 
the  17th  century  the  cutting  of  bent  was  discontinued  because  of 
accidents  arising  from  the  use  of  the  hooks  required  for  the  work. 
For  this  there  was  substituted  a  contribution  of  twelve  pennies, 
called  bent  silver,  in  May,  June,  and  July  by  every  scholar.  The 
holidays,  however,  were  continued.  Aberdeen  seems  to  have 
been  less  exacting  in  the  matter  of  bent  silver'. 

Games  did  not  occupy  a  very  prominent  place  in  school  life. 
Archery,  bowls,  golf,  handball,  and  wrestling  were  practised,  but 
apparently  without  definite  system  or  rules.  Cards,  dice,  and 
playing  for  money  were  forbidden,  and  in  Glasgow,  scholars  who 
resorted  to  yards  in  which  "aliebowlis,  glakis,  and  French  kyles" 
were  practised  did  so  under  pain  of  £10^.  The  day  of  cricket  and 
football  had  not  yet  come,  but  the  need  of  physical  recreative 
exercise  as  an  element  of  school  life  was  recognised  and  reasonably 
attended  to. 

The  question  of  holidays  gave  the  patrons  of  schools  a  great 
amount  of  trouble  throughout  the  whole  of  the  i6th  and  17th 
centuries.  The  newly  awakened  Protestant  feeling  against  every- 
thing savouring  of  popery  led  them  to  object  to  festival  holidays 
of  every  kind,  but  especially  to  those  of  Christmas,  "  the  super- 
stitious time  of  Yule^"  In  this  objection  schoolboys  naturally 
did  not  share,  with  the  result  that  in  Edinburgh,  Aberdeen,  and 

'  Aberdee7i  Burgh  Records.  "The  provost  and  bailies, upon  certain  good  respects 
and  considerations  moving  them,  discharge  the  master  of  the  grammar  school  in 
giving  leave  to  the  bent,  or  in  exacting  any  bent  silver  by  reason  of  the  inconvenience 
that  falls  out  frequently  by  the  occasion  foresaid." 

^  Aliebowlis  was  probably  a  game  with  bowls  in  an  alley.  There  are  still  bowling 
alleys  in  connection  with  taverns.  Glakis  was  a  puzzle  with  some  notched  pieces  of 
wood  which  it  was  difficult  to  undo  and  replace  in  their  former  position.  French 
kyles  is  probably  the  old  name  for  the  modern  nine  pins,  a  game  not  yet  extinct  and 
not  uncommon  in  the  latter  half  of  last  century.  The  yards  in  which  these  games 
were  played  may  have  been  disreputable,  but  nine  pins  is  in  itself  harmless. 

Paisley  was  in  a  bad  plight.  In  the  Burgh  Records  we  find  that  the  council, 
"  moved  by  certain  ongoings  in  their  midst,  ordain  that  changers  [innkeepers] 
selling  drink  to  scholars  shall  pay  £10  of  money,  and  be  discharged  in  future  from 
brewing." 

^  Even  so  late  as  December  21,  1642,  the  following  entry  is  found  in  the  Aberdeen 
Burgh  Records,  "The  same  day  the  provost  and  bailies  ordain  the  hail  inhabitants  of 
this  town  their  bairns,  repair  and  keep  the  school  precisely  upon  Sunday  next  and  the 
week  thereafter,  under  pain  often  pounds.     Intimation  to  be  made  by  the  drum," 


VI]  SCHOOL   GAMES   AND    HOLIDAYS  89 

elsewhere  violent  rebellions  were  of  frequent  occurrence.  In  spite 
of  Acts  of  Parliament,  and  ordinances  of  town  councils,  the  boys 
in  Aberdeen  in  1604  refused  to  be  deprived  of  their  old  privilege, 
took  possession  of  the  school,  and  held  it  by  armed  force  "  with 
swords,  guns,  pistols,  and  other  weapons,  spoiling  and  taking 
poor  folks  gear, — geese,  fowls,  and  other  vivers  [victuals]  and 
repyning  altogether  to  the  discipline  of  the  master."  In  con- 
sequence of  this,  the  council  passed  an  order  that  no  pupil  is  to 
be  admitted  to  the  school  unless  some  friend  or  parent  gives 
caution  for  his  behaviour,  and  that  he  shall  not  join  in  taking 
possession  of  the  school  under  the  pain  of  ;^20.  In  subsequent 
years  the  rebellious  conduct  was  repeated. 

Discipline  seems  to  have  been  lax  in  Aberdeen  in  other 
matters  than  holidays.  We  find  another  record  about  this  time 
bearing  that  the  writing  master  was  attacked  in  the  street  and 
seriously  wounded  with  dirks  and  batons  to  great  effusion  of 
bloods 

We  find  evidence  of  the  same  rebellious  spirit  in  Edinburgh, 
In  1580,  eight  scholars  were  imprisoned  and  fined  forty  shillings 
each  for  holding  the  school  in  defiance  of  the  masters  and  breaking 
of  one  of  the  doors. 

The  Christmas  holidays  were  not  the  only  occasions  of  riot 
and  even  dangerous  violence.  Similar  disagreements  between 
masters  and  scholars  arose  in  connection  with  the  autumn 
holidays.  In  1587  the  scholars  of  the  Edinburgh  High  School 
barred  out  the  famous  master,  Mr  Rollock,  and  "proudly  and 
contemptuously  held  it  against  the  Lord  Provost  and  the  balies 
who  were  compelled  to  ding  [break]  in  pieces  one  of  the  doors." 
When  this  was  done  the  scholars  were  found  armed  with  pistols, 
swords,  halberts,  and  other  weapons.  Eight  )'ears  later  we  have 
proof  of  the  dangerous  character  of  these  outbreaks.     On  this 

^  There  is  another  entry  that  Alexander  Forbes  asks  pardon  of  Mr  \Villiam 
Wedderbum,  one  of  the  masters  in  the  school,  for  "giving  him  ane  cuff  in  passing  to 
the  grammar  school,  and  promises  whatever  satisfaction  the  provost  may  ordain." 
He  ordains  that  F'orbes,  "being  sorry  and  grieved  for  his  wrang,  must  go  presently  to 
the  grammar  school,  and  there,  in  all  humility  on  his  knees  in  presence  of  the 
magistrates  and  master  of  the  school  and  scholars,  sit  down  on  his  knees,  acknowledge 
and  confess  his  fault  and  crave  pardon."  All  which  he  did.  Burgh  Records  of 
Aberdeen. 


90        BURGH   AND   OTHER   SCHOOLS   FROM    1 560   TO    1696     [CH. 

occasion  the  scholars  went  to  the  council  and  petitioned  for 
a  holiday.  On  their  petition  being  refused,  they  procured  arms 
of  various  kinds,  and  took  possession  of  the  school.  Mr  Rollock 
being  thus  barred  out  applied  to  the  magistrates  for  help.  A 
member  of  the  town  council,  John  Macmorran,  came  with  a 
party  of  men  to  help  in  getting  access  to  the  school,  and  on  his 
attempting  to  force  the  door  was  shot  in  the  head  and  killed^ 

It  is  not  difficult  to  find  some  palliation  for  the  rebellion  of 
high-spirited  boys  in  connection  with  the  shortening  of  their 
holidays.  Old  customs  die  hard.  Schoolboys  were  not  without 
excuse  for  thinking  that  a  sacrifice  of  ten  days  of  immemorial 
holidays  was  an  extravagant  estimation  of  the  extent  to  which 
they  were  expected  to  abhor  the  errors  of  popery.  Till  well  past 
the  middle  of  last  century  in  some  Aberdeenshire  schools  a 
petition  was  put  on  the  master's  desk  before  he  came  in  on  the 
morning  of  Shrove  Tuesday,  asking  for  a  holiday-.  At  the  same 
time  a  similar  custom  existed  in  Glasgow  University.  A  selected 
party  of  students  called  on  certain  of  the  professors  on  special 
occasions  with  the  same  request,  which  was  usually  granted. 

In  the  burgh  records  of  all  important  towns  we  have  abundant 
evidence  of  the  keen  interest  felt,  and  of  the  earnest  efforts  made 
by  town  councils,  to  secure  for  the  office  of  master  the  men  with 
the  highest  qualifications.  They  were  as  a  rule  chosen  without 
fear  or  favour.  It  was  extremely  rare  that  a  man  was  appointed 
by  testimonials  or  correspondence,  and  when  such  occasion  arose, 
he  was  taken  on  probation  and  definitely  appointed  only  after 
his  probation  was  announced  to  be  satisfactory.  By  the  results  of 
a  fair  and  apparently  strict  examination  the  election  was  made. 
Some  of  the  examinations,  judged  by  the  books  on  which  the 
candidates  were  tested,  seem  to  indicate  high  cla.ssical  attain- 
ments, such  as  translating  ad  apertiiravi  Horace,  Juvenal,  Hesiod 
and  Plautus.  It  is  not  easy  to  discover  how  much  accuracy  was 
demanded,  but  the  impression  left  by  the  entries  in  the  records 
is    that   the   test   was    reasonably  high.     There  was  usually  a 

'  Grant's  Burgh  Schools,  pp.  187 — 188. 

^  It  was  always  in  the  same  words  :  "  Beef  brose  and  sautie  bannocks  day.  Please 
give  us  the  afternoon."  The  afternoon  was  spent  according  to  the  weather  in  a 
"  snawba'  bicker"  [a  snowball  fight]  or  a  game  of  shinty  (hockey),  in  still  earlier  times 
in  a  cockfight,  the  victims  becoming  the  property  of  the  schoolmaster. 


VI]  EXAMINATION    OF   SCHOOLMASTERS  pi 

competition  between  two  or  more  candidates.  In  several  cases, 
where  there  was  nu  competition,  the  candidate  was  found  dis- 
qualified, or  admitted  on  probation  when  the  examiners  did  not 
agree  as  to  his  fitness.  For  the  grammar  school  of  Aberdeen 
in  1602  two  candidates  came  forward,  and  were  examined  by  the 
learned  men  of  Old  and  New  Aberdeen,  with  the  result  that  a 
dead  heat  was  declared,  and  both  men  were  appointed.  How  far 
this  was  successful  is  not  recorded.  The  master  after  being 
presented,  and  before  he  was  admitted  to  the  office,  was  obliged, 
like  all  officers  of  state,  to  take  the  oath  de  fideli  adminis- 
tratione.  Every  condition  as  to  orthodoxy,  loyalty,  character, 
and  ability  being  satisfied,  there  was  usually  a  ceremonial 
admission  to  office,  the  patrons  taking  him  by  the  hand,  and 
presenting  him  with  some  symbol  of  authority,  in  some  cases 
a  grammar,  and  in  others  the  key  of  the  school  and  tawse,  the 
analogue  of  the  English  cane  or  birch^ 

In  the  17th  century  the  appointment  of  assistant  teachers 
took  various  forms.  In  one  place  the  Rector  appointed  his 
assistants  subject  to  the  approval  of  the  council.  In  another 
the  council  made  the  appointments  subject  to  the  approval  of 
the  Rector.  In  another  the  Rector's  authority  was  absolute.  In 
other  and  the  worst  cases  the  teachers  were  independent  of 
each  other,  the  authority  and  even  the  name  of  Rector  being 
abolished.  The  action  of  the  patrons  was  sometimes  empirical, 
depending  on  the  success  or  failure  of  previous  experiments. 
There  can  be  no  doubt  that  the  best  form  was  to  have  the  Rector 
as  the  central  source  of  authority,  the  other  teachers  having  the 
right  of  appeal  to  the  patrons  in  the  event  of  an  abuse  of 
authority. 

During  the  period  now  being  dealt  with — the  later  i6th  and 
the  17th  centuries — the  tenure  of  office  was  insecure.  The  main 
forms  of  tenure  were  three,  (i)  the  pleasure  of  the  town  council 
durante  bene  placito\  (2)  for  a  definite  period  ;  (3)  for  life,  ad 
vitam  ant  cnlpavi.  By  far  the  most  numerous  appointments 
were  for  a  definite  period  ;  the  next  were  those  made  during^ 
pleasure.  The  number  of  life  appointments  was  comparatively 
small,  the  first  occurring  in  Haddington  in  1563,  which  was  soon 

^  Burgh  Records  of  Perth  and  Cupar, 


92        BURGH    AND   OTHER   SCHOOLS    FROM    1560   TO    1696    [CH. 

thereafter  followed  in  Crail  and  Edinburgh.  Appointments 
made  at  the  pleasure  of  the  council  left  the  teacher  completely 
in  the  power  of  the  patrons.  We  have  little  information  as  to 
whether  a  kindly  and  judicious  use  was  made  of  this  power,  but 
the  position  of  the  teacher  was  unfortunate,  and  it  would  be 
strange  if  there  were  not  then,  as  now,  cases  in  which  a  harsh 
use  was  made  of  a  little  brief  authority.  Appointments  for  a 
definite  period  ranged  from  eleven  years  to  a  quarter  of  a  year. 
Here  the  teacher  had  the  advantage  of  a  definite  contract  into 
which  he  entered  with  his  eyes  open.  By  far  the  largest  number 
of  appointments  ad  vitam  ant  ciilpavi  belong  to  the  i8th  century. 

From  the  Reformation  to  1690  almost  continuously  the 
position  of  the  schoolmaster  was  far  from  comfortable.  Removal 
from  office  was  a  perpetual  threat  and  possibility  according  as 
Presbyterianism  or  Episcopacy  had  for  the  time  the  upper  hand. 
Signature  to  the  Confession  of  Faith  was  imperative  on  all 
schoolmasters.  Roman  Catholics  in  office  were,  on  refusing 
subscription,  dismissed.  In  this  action  the  kirk  was  sometimes 
backed  up  by  the  municipal  authorities. 

Considerations  of  space  forbid  an  enumeration  of  instances. 
Suffice  it  to  say  that  by  Act  of  Parliament  in  1640  subscription 
to  the  Confession  was  not  only  demanded  from  teachers,  but 
parents  who  refused  obedience  to  the  demands  of  the  Church 
then  in  the  ascendant  were  deprived  of  their  children,  for  whose 
education  in  the  true  faith  means  were  provided  ^  This  was 
carried  out  without  respect  of  persons.  Peer  and  peasant  were 
subjected  to  the  same  treatment.  The  General  Assembly  had 
even  the  courage  to  "  deal  earnestly  "  with  the  King  for  allowing 
his  daughter  to  live  in  the  company  of  Lady  Livingstone,  an 
"  obstinate  papist-."  During  Cromwell's  rule  there  was  some 
modification  in  this  respect.  All  but  Roman  Catholics  had,  so 
far  as  election  to  office  was  concerned,  liberty  of  choice  in  the 
exercise  of  their  religion  I 

With  the  Restoration,  Episcopacy  being  then  established, 
"parliament  passed  an  Act  embodying  a  Declaration,  which  made 

^  Act  of  Parliament,  1640,  v,  272. 

"^  Annals  of  Linlithgow  parish. 

^  Act  of  Parliament,  1655,  vi,  part  n,  827. 


Vl]  RELIGIOUS   TESTS    FOR   SCIIUUL.MASTERS  93 

it  imperative  that  teachers  should  sign  a  bond  declaring  that  it 
was  unlawful  for  a  subject  to  enter  into  leagues  and  covenants'. 
Obedience  to  this  was,  as  might  be  expected,  refused  by  many- 
teachers  who  declined  to  yield  to  the  demands  of  "  black  prelacy," 
and  were  consequently  removed  from  office.  While  it  was  in 
force  it  pressed  cruelly  on  teachers.  In  Forfar,  Linlithgow, 
Paisley,  Aberdeen,  Ayr,  Edinburgh,  dismissals  took  place.  It 
was  followed  by  another  Act  in  1681,  more  offensive  and  intoler- 
able, and  having  the  same  motive,  putting  as  Wodrow  says  "  the 
gravestone  upon  the  Covenant,"  and  extinguishing  personal 
liberty-. 

On  the  advent  of  the  Revolution  in  1688  and  establishment 
of  Presbyterianism,  tests  were  not  abolished,  but  simply  changed. 
Roman  Catholics  were  still  excluded  from  all  offices,  civil  or 
military.  The  oaths  imposed  were  for  the  protection  of  Presby- 
terianism instead  of  Episcopacy.  Subscription  to  the  Confession 
of  Faith  was  still  binding  on  teachers  by  the  Act  of  1690,  which 
was  ratified  by  the  Union,  with  an  addendum  that  the  teachers 
must  conform  themselves  to  the  worship  presently  in  use  in  the 
Church,  and  never  endeavour  directly  or  indirectly  to  prejudice 
the  same^ 

It  was  not  unnatural,  and  perhaps  essentially  human,  that 
Presbyterians,  now  that  their  turn  had  come,  should  follow  and 
even  better  the  example  set  by  their  Episcopal  rivals  in  similar 
circumstances.  It  is  difficult  to  say  to  which  of  the  two  the 
palm  for  intolerance  should  be  awarded.  Toleration  and  con- 
science clauses  were  not  thought  of.  The  time  for  the  discussion 
of  religious  questions  in  a  calm  give-and-take  spirit  had  not  yet 
come.  It  is  satisfactory  to  observe  that  the  arrogation  to  them- 
selves, on  the  part  of  clerics  in  all  ages  and  creeds,  of  a  special 
and  quasi-heaven-sent  commission  to  keep  things  right,  and 
dictate  to  the  laity,  is  considerably  less  pronounced  now  than 
in  former  times. 

The  causes  for  which  teachers  could  be  dismissed  were  various. 
They  were  obliged  to  take  the  oath  of  allegiance  to  the  throne. 
In  the  period  now  being  dealt  with  there  does  not  appear  any 

'  Act  of  rarliameiu,  1662,  c.  14,  vii,  405.     It  was  resciiuled  in  i6yo. 
-  Jbid.  1 68 1,  c.  6,  VIII,  243.  ^  Grant's  Burj^/t  Schools,  p.  271. 


94  BURGH    AND    OTHER   SCHOOLS   FROM    1 560   TO    1696         [CH. 

record  of  dismissal  in  connection  with  this.  There  are  a  great 
many  cases  under  the  head  of  infirmity.  We  have  abundant 
evidence  of  the  zeal  for  education  shown  by  the  town  councils, 
but  one  is  tempted  to  doubt  as  to  whether  their  zeal  was 
tempered  by  judgment  and  kindly  feeling.  A  number  of  dis- 
missals are,  in  the  absence  of  evidence  to  the  contrary,  apparently 
heartless.  The  reasons  variously  given  are  of  the  following 
character  : — "  because  of  old  age,"  "  from  weakness  unable  to  wait 
upon  the  school,"  "  being  seized  with  palsy  the  school  is  vacant," 
&c.  In  very  few  cases  is  there  any  mention  of  provision  for  an 
old  age  that  was  almost  certainly  impecunious. 

Dismissals  on  account  of  inefficiency  are  also  numerous. 
With  these  there  is  probably  no  fault  to  be  found,  if  all  the 
circumstances  were  taken  into  account.  The  grounds  are  variously 
stated  : — "  children  attracted  to  other  schools,"  "  inefficient  to 
await  on  the  school,"  "  school  has  fallen  into  decay,"  "  children  not 
instructed  sufificiently,"  "  school  decayed  to  the  great  hurt  and 
discredit  of  the  burgh,"  "  school  desolate,  the  children  vaiging 
(playing  truant)  and  committing  evil  things  by  not  being  kept  to 
school,"  "  supine  negligence  and  many  other  faults,"  "  the  master 
not  known  in  the  new  method  of  teaching  English,"  &c. 

Severity  of  discipline  is  also  the  reason  of  many  dismissals. 
The  burgh  records  of  Jedburgh,  Arbroath,  Glasgow,  and  other 
towns  make  mention  of  instances  of  excessively  severe  discipline. 
In  1699  in  Moffatt  a  boy  died  from  the  effects  of  cruel  punish- 
ment. The  master  was  brought  to  trial,  and  the  judges  found 
the  treatment  of  the  boy  "  relevant  to  infer  the  pains  of  death," 
but  instead  of  the  extreme  penalty  of  hanging,  the  master  was 
taken  from  the  Tolbooth  of  Edinburgh  by  the  hangman,  first  to 
the  middle  of  the  Lawnmarket  where  he  received  seven  severe 
stripes  and  then  to  the  Fountain-well  where  he  received  other 
five  similar  stripes,  and  was  then  banished  forth  of  the  kingdom 
never  to  return  under  the  highest  pains^  Punishments  were  in 
the  past  more  severe  than  they  are  now,  but  the  masters  were 
carefully  watched  by  the  council  in  the  use  they  made  of  the 
rod,  and  when  undue  severity  was  proved  against  them  they 
were  either  censured  or  removed. 

^  History  of  the  Rod,  p.  183. 


Vl]  DISMISSAL   OF    SCHOOLMASTP:kS  95 

Teachers  were  frequently  dismissed  for  quarrelling  with  each 
other.  Quarrels  arose  from  very  defective  organisation.  There 
was  no  central  source  of  authority.  In  large  schools  each  teacher 
had  charge  of  a  separate  branch,  the  fees  from  which  formed 
a  substantial  part  of  his  emoluments.  There  was  consequently 
a  strong  temptation  for  every  member  of  the  staff  not  only  to 
canvass  for  pupils  for  himself,  but  also  to  poach  upon  the  preserves 
of  others,  by  secretly  teaching  other  branches  than  his  own. 
This  system  was  not  uncommon  so  late  as  twenty-five  or  thirty 
years  ago.      It  is  probably  now  extinct,  and  not  too  soon. 

Schoolmasters  were  sometimes  dismissed  for  immorality, 
drunkenness  and  fighting  to  the  effusion  of  bloods 

The  case  of  John  Cunningham  is  a  peculiarly  sad  one.  He 
was  accused  in  1591  of  witchcraft.  An  admission  was  wrung 
from  him,  when  put  to  the  torture,  that  he  had  had  meetings 
with  the  devil,  and  had  done  many  impossible  feats.  When  he 
was  released  from  torture,  he  said  the  admission  he  had  made 
was  not  true,  whereupon  he  was  subjected  again  to  the  most 
terrible  suffering  in  the  presence  of  King  James,  who  interpreted 
the  poor  man's  refusal  to  make  a  second  admission  as  a  proof 
that  the  devil  had  entered  his  heart.  He  was  condemned  and 
burnt". 

As  already  mentioned  teachers  were  too  often  dismissed 
owing  to  old  age  and  decrepitude  with  no  provision  whatever 
for  the  remainder  of  their  days.  The  records  of  the  i6th  century 
furnish  few  examples  of  such  provision.  There  are  more  in  the 
17th,  but  even  then  they  are  far  from  numerous.  This  may  have 
been  a  necessity  from  want  of  funds,  but  if  so,  it  was  a  sad 
necessity.  The  council  frequently  signified  their  satisfaction 
with  aged  teachers  by  making  them  honorary  burgesses  and 
guild  brothers,  which  was  not  then,  as  it  is  now,  a  mere  com- 
pliment, but  carried  with  it  substantial  privileges,  not  only  for 

^  In  1697  James  Bean,  schoolmaster,  of  Kirkcudbright,  and  John  Campbell,  were 
fined  and  imprisoned  for  "venting  and  expressing"  against  each  other  "several 
unchristian  words,  such  as  confmindit  lyers,  knaves,  begerlie  rascals,  and  the  lyke, 
which  brak  furth  in  strocks  ane  upon  the  other."  And  Henry  Gibson,  schoolmaster, 
of  Kirkcudbright,  and  John  Walker,  burgess  there,  were  indicted  for  "  mutuall  blood 
and  batterie,  being  in  excess  of  drink."     Burgh  Records  of  Kirkcudbright. 

^  Grant's  Burgh  Schools,  p.  283. 


96        BURGH    AND   OTHER   SCHOOLS    FROM    1560   TO    1 696    [CH. 

the  teacher  himself,  but  in  some  cases  for  his  children  also.  In 
some  cases  they  were  exempted  from  the  payment  of  certain 
taxes  and  common  burdens  in  the  burgh.  Presents  of  small 
sums  of  money,  a  new  hat,  or  piece  of  plate,  were  also  indications 
of  satisfaction.  A  yearly  pension  was  of  rare  occurrence,  and 
there  was  no  stated  provision  for  superannuated  teachers.  From 
the  earliest  times  to  the  period  now  being  dealt  with,  the  masters 
of  burgh  schools  had  not  been  entitled  to  demand  pensions^ 
when  infirmity  and  old  age,  though  preceded  by  long  and  excellent 
service,  had  made  resignation  imperative.  That  higher  educationi 
suffered  seriously  from  this  is  beyond  doubt :  that  it  retained  a 
certain  amount  of  vitality  is  matter  for  surprise. 

The  dignity  attached  to  the  position  of  the  master  of  the 
grammar  school  in  pre-Reformation  times  was  in  the  17th  century 
much  lowered.  He  still  had  duties  outside  his  proper  office,  but 
they  were  no  longer  such  as  made  him  a  fellow-worker  with  high 
state  officials.  He  still  had  some  semi-clerical  functions,  reading 
prayers^  acting  as  precentor-  and  session  clerk^;  others  secular^ 
such  as  being  clerk  of  the  burgh,  guyding  and  keeping  the 
clock^  walking  the  marches  of  the  burgh l  On  great  occasions 
such  as  the  visit  of  Queen  Anne  of  Denmark  after  her  marriage 
with  James  VI,  Hercules  Rollock  of  Edinburgh  High  School 
delivered  a  congratulatory  oration**.  But  to  a  considerable  extent 
the  glory  had  departed. 

Patrons  of  schools  in  their  zeal  for  education  naturally  objected 
to  teachers  engaging  in  any  occupation  likely  to  interfere  with 
their  proper  duties.  In  this  objection  they  were  backed  up  by 
the  Convention  of  Royal  Burghs,  who  requested  parliament  to 
pass  an  act  forbidding  men  to  be  both  schoolmasters  and 
ministers''.  The  General  Assembly  had  the  same  view  and 
ordained  the  visitors  of  grammar  schools  to  see  that  this  was 
attended  to.  The  teachers  on  the  other  hand  naturally  disliked 
this  prohibition  again.st  supplementing  their  miserably  small 
incomes,   and    sometimes   contrived    to   get    permission    to   be 

^  Burgh  Records  of  Paisley. 

2  Btirgh  Records  of  Haddington,  Burgh  Records  of  Ayr. 

^  Burgh  Records  of  Haddington.  *  Maitland  Club  Miscellany,  II,  46. 

*  Report  on  Burgh  Schools,  n,  115.  ^  Steven's  High  School,  21. 

'  Record  of  Convention  of  Royal  Burghs,  241. 


VI]  RETIRING   ALLOWANCES    FOR   SCHOOLMASTERS  97 

pluralists,  subject  to  their  efficiency  in  school  bein^r  maintained. 
In  numerous  instances  the  minister  of  the  parish  was  per- 
mitted, on  certain  conditions,  to  be  at  the  same  time  master 
of  the  grammar  schooP. 

We  have  seen  that  by  the  famous  Act  of  1496  barons, 
freeholders,  and  men  of  substance  were  held  bound  to  have  their 
children  satisfactorily  educated.  This  was  not  enough  for  Knox, 
who,  in  drawing  up  his  first  Book  of  Discipline  in  1560,  proposed 
that  all  fathers  of  whatever  estate  should  be  compelled  to  have 
their  children  trained  in  learning  and  virtue.  If  parents  were 
too  poor  to  meet  the  expense,  funds  must  be  furnished  from  the 
public  purse.  Parents  who  were  able  to  pay  but  neglected  the 
admonition  were  to  be  compelled  to  make  full  payment,  whether 
they  sent  their  children  to  school  or  not,  and  were  besides  to  be 
fined.  Attendance  at  school  was  made  a  condition  of  the  poor 
receiving  alms.  Poor  children  who  attended  school  were  allowed 
three  hours  daily  for  seeking  their  meat  through  the  town.  If 
food  was  still  wanting,  the  kirk  session  provided  it-. 

Let  it  be  granted  that  Town  Councils  and  the  Church  in 
their  pursuit  of  what  was  best  for  education  fell  into  mistakes 
which  later  experience  enables  us  to  avoid,  there  still  remains 
the  outstanding  fact  that  a  country  small,  poor,  and  shamelessly 
robbed  of  an  inheritance  which  belonged  to  education,  kept 
steadily  in  view  and  pursued  with  unslackened  rein  its  aim  for 
intellectual  culture  and  advancement.  For  more  than  300  years 
in  a  practically  continuous  record,  there  is  scarcely  a  burgh  or 
important  town  in  which  provision  was  not  made  for  the  teaching 
of  Latin  and  Greek  to  all,  rich  and  poor  alike,  who  were  able  to 
turn  them  to  profitable  use.  We  are  warranted  in  saying  that 
no  other  country  has  such  a  record. 

With  regard  to  the  character  and  pitch  of  the  instruction 
and  the  books  read,  we  have  evidence  in  Melville's  Dian"  where 
the  course  followed  in  Logie,  Montrose  is  sketched,  and  in  a 
document  in  the  Glasgow  Archives  which  gives  the  details  of  a 
five  years'  course.     The  Minora  Colloquia  of  Erasmus,  Virgil, 

^  Burgh  Records  of  Crail,  Haddington,  Kirkcudbright  and  others. 
"  Kirk  Session  Records  of  Anstruthcr. 
^  Melville's  Z)/<ir;',  pp.  13,  14,  17;   18:9. 

K.  E.  7 


98      BURGH   AND    OTHER   SCHOOLS   FROM    1560   TO    1696      [CH. 

Ovid,  Horace,  Livy,  Sallust,  Terence,  and  Cicero  are  mentioned 
as  the  books  in  use.  It  is  reasonable  to  infer  that  if  these  books 
were  read,  they  were  fairly  level  with  the  pupils'  attainments. 

We  may  note  here  that  from  very  early  times  the  master 
took  with  him  through  the  whole  curriculum  the  pupils  with 
whom  he  started,  until  the  Rector's  class  was  reached.  This 
practice,  perhaps  confined  to  Scotland,  was  adhered  to  in  some 
schools — notably  in  Edinburgh  Academy  and  High  School,  and 
in  the  High  School  of  Glasgow  till  the  latter  half  of  the  19th 
century,  with  the  result  that,  according  as  a  master  was  popular 
or  the  reverse,  his  class  was  large  or  small,  and  pupils  were 
promoted  from  class  to  class  irrespective  of  attainments. 

Many  books  used  in  earlier  times  had  by  this  time  been 
supplanted  by  others.  The  Grammar  by  Vaus  seems  not  to  have 
been  used  after  the  Reformation.  An  improved  edition  of  Des- 
pauter  still  survived,  but  was  in  its  turn  displaced  by  a  series  of 
grammars  by  Simson,  Duncan,  and  Home  of  Edinburgh  High 
School.  Home's  Grammar  was  the  first  which  parliament 
appointed  to  be  taught  exclusively  in  all  schools.  It  was  again 
superseded  by  that  of  Wedderburne  of  Aberdeen,  which  held 
the  field  till  Ruddiman's — the  first  Latin  Grammar  in  a  purely 
English  dress — took  its  place. 

In  the  middle  ages  music  occupied  a  much  higher  place 
as  a  branch  of  education  than  it  does  now.  The  Reformers  in 
their  strong  opposition  to  anything  savouring  of  luxury,  taste,  or 
refinement,  and  as  a  protest  against  what  was  so  conspicuous  in 
the  Roman  Catholic  service,  carried  their  disregard  of  it  even 
into  school  life.  Sang  schools  which  till  now  had  received  great 
attention  declined  so  much  that  an  Act  of  Parliament  was  passed 
for  their  revivals  This  had  not  the  desired  effect.  Thirty  years 
later  James  VI  endowed  music  schools  in  Musselburgh*  and 
Elgin^  His  Consort  Anne  did  the  same  for  Dunfermline.  But 
these  royal  efforts,  seconded  though  they  were  by  parliament, 
were  not  followed  by  a  general  revival.  The  music  school  of 
Glasgow    was  described   as  "altogether  decayed."     In  spite  of 

^  Act  of  Parliament,  1579,  ^-  5^'  '">  '74' 
^  Report  on  Burgh  Schools,  il,  130. 
3  Report  on  Endowed  Schools,  n,  332. 


VI]  SCHOOLBOOKS   AND    MUSIC   IN    SCHOOLS  99 

greatly  enlarged  emoluments  in  Aberdeen,  Glasgow,  Dundee, 
and  other  towns,  this  branch  was  not  restored  to  its  former 
prominence  during  the  period  with  which  we  are  now  dealing. 

The  use  of  music  at  lykewakes  and  funerals  led  to  abuses 
which  called  for  interference  by  the  authorities.  The  doctor  of 
music  was  forbidden  to  sing  at  lykewakes  on  pain  of  dismissal 
from  office.  Old  customs  die  hard,  and  on  the  gradual  return  of 
the  same  abuses  the  Act  of  Council  forbidding  singing  at  lyke- 
wakes was  ratified.  The  abuses  were  probably  akin  to  the  riotous 
behaviour  which  accompanies  Irish  wakes. 

From  very  early  times  instruction  in  elementary  subjects  by 
private  teachers  was  in  stepmotherly  fashion  permitted,  but  after 
the  Reformation  Town  Councils  saw  the  necessity  of  sound 
acquaintance  with  English  and  writing  as  a  preliminary  to 
entrance  into  the  grammar  school.  Grants  were  accordingly 
made  to  elementary  schools  which,  from  the  failure  of  Knox's 
scheme,  were  simply  adventure  schools.  For  starting  these  the 
authority  of  the  magistrates  was  required^  In  the  smaller 
grammar  schools  there  was  often  a  room  set  apart  for  these 
elementary  subjects,  but  in  the  larger  grammar  schools,  Glasgow 
and  Aberdeen,  English  was  not  taught  as  a  separate  branch  till 
early  in  the  19th  century,  and  in  Edinburgh  not  till  the  latter 
half  of  the  same  centur}--.  In  some  cases  separate  buildings  were 
erected  for  the  English  department,  in  others  the  elementary 
branches  were  taught  in  the  sang  school.  In  1583  reading, 
writing,  English,  and  music  were  taught  in  the  sang  school 
of  Ayr^  In  Dunbar  in  1679  the  English  and  grammar  schools 
were  separate,  each  under  its  own  master*. 

The  intercourse  between  Scotland  and  France  in  the  middle 
ages  secured  for  the  French  language  an  early  introduction  into 
the  schools.  It  was  allowed  to  be  spoken  in  school  and  presum- 
ably was  known  before  the  Reformation.  Teachers  of  French 
were  appointed  in  Edinburgh  in  1574  and  in  Aberdeen  in  1635. 
In  1574  the  Council  of  Edinburgh  authorised  a  Frenchman  to 

'  "  It  having  pleased  the  Lord  to  vouchsafe  to  Alexander  Anderson  in  Aberdeen 
learning— reading  and  writing,  the  Council  in  i66i  allow  him  to  teach  these 
branches."     Burgh  Records  of  Aberdeen. 

-  Report  on  Burgh  Schools,  I,  34. 

^  Burgh  Records  of  Ayr.  *  Burgh  Records  of  Dunbar. 

7—2 


lOO      BURGH   AND  OTHER    SCHOOLS   FROM    1560  TO    1696     [CH. 

commence  a  school  in  which  to  teach  his  own  language,  and 
asked  him  to  give  intimation  of  this  by  setting  up  a  sign\ 
There  is  unfortunately  no  information  about  the  extent  and 
character  of  the  instruction. 

The  kirk  then  as  now  laid  great  stress  on  the  importance  of 
the  religious  element  in  education.  An  Act  of  Parliament  in 
1 567  declares  that,  if  this  is  neglected,  instruction  shall  be  "  tinsell 
baith  to  thair  bodyis  and  saulisV  Burgh  records  abound  in 
proofs  of  the  universality  of  this  attitude  on  the  part  of  the 
kirk.  The  lesser  catechism  for  the  younger  and  the  shorter 
catechism  for  the  older  pupils  were  constantly  in  evidence. 
Saturday  was  to  a  large  extent  occupied  in  hearing  the  repetition 
of  these  and  other  memory  tasks.  Sunday  was  no  day  of  rest  for 
pupil  or  teacher.  Attendance  at  church  was  no  merely  formal 
function.  In  the  session  records  of  Glasgow,  Aberdeen,  Peebles, 
Elgin,  and  elsewhere,  we  find  that  the  masters  of  the  grammar 
schools  were  held  bound  to  obtain  from  their  pupils  notes  of  the 
sermons  they  had  heard,  and  hear  them  repeat  the  shorter 
catechism.  Many  men  of  sound  judgment  and  enlightened  views 
on  education  and  the  formation  of  character  think  that  this 
severe  inculcation  of  Calvinistic  logic  has  contributed  largely  in 
giving  to  Scotsmen  the  stamina  and  backbone  which  have 
carried  them  to  success  in  so  many  fields. 

We  get  a  tolerably  clear  idea  of  the  importance  attached  to 
a  knowledge  of  the  Catechism  from  a  custom  which  was  observed 
in  Aberdeen^  Leith,  and  probably  elsewhere.  Two  grammar- 
school  pupils  were  appointed  to  take  up  a  position  in  the  front 
of  the  pulpit  in  the  interval  between  the  sermons.  For  the 
benefit  of  "  common  ignorant  people  and  servants,"  the  one  asked 
and  the  other  answered  in  a  loud  voice,  questions  from  the 
shorter  Catechism,  that  all  might  hear  and  learn  accurately  both 
question  and  answer^ 

1  Chambers'  Domestic  Annals,  I,  95. 

2  Act  of  Parliament,  1567,  c.  11,  in,  24.  ^  Session  Records  of  Aberdeen. 

*  One  cannot  but  admire  these  zealous  endeavours  to  secure  universal  acquaintance 
with  a  wonderfully  logical  document,  but  may  hesitate  about  ascribing  to  it  the  saving 
efficacy  claimed  for  it  by  a  university  student  who,  in  the  19th  century,  gave  as  its 
etymology  "  derived  from  Kara  down,  and  x^-'^t^"-  ^  g^P>  ^  set  of  questions  arranged  to 
keep  people  from  stumbling  into  the  bottomless  pit — in  short,  a  Catechism." 


VI]  RELIGIOUS   INSTRUCTION,   SCHOOL   LIBRARIES  lOI 

In  the  latter  half  of  the  17th  century  considerable  attention 
was  paid  to  the  formation  of  libraries  in  connection  with  the 
more  important  grammar  schools  such  as  Edinbugh,  Glasgow, 
Aberdeen,  and  Montrose.  Boys  leaving  school  were  required  to 
make  contributions  for  the  purchase  of  books.  In  some  cases 
fines  imposed  for  law-breaking  were  employed  for  this  purpose, 
and  in  others  contributions  were  made  from  the  common  good. 
Edinburgh  Grammar  School  300  years  ago  had  a  collection  of 
nearly  600  volumes,  which  subsequent  additions  have  raised  to 
7000.     Dollar  has  a  library  of  over  5000  volumes. 

With  respect  to  emoluments  the  rapacity  of  the  Barons  at  the 
Reformation  in  taking  the  lion's  share  of  the  property  of  the 
Old  Church  and  the  good  fortune  of  the  Reformers  in  securing 
a  part  of  it,  while  education  got  a  very  small  portion,  have 
already  been  referred  to.  Parliament  seeing  the  impecunious 
position  of  the  teacher,  passed  an  act  in  1567'  ordaining  patrons 
to  make  over  to  poor  students  certain  church  funds  as  altarages, 
chaplainries,  and  prebends.  This  was  done  in  very  few  cases, 
and  the  act  was  practically  fruitless.  Queen  Mary  in  1567*, 
James  VI  in  1572,  his  Consort  in  1610,  and  Charles  I  in  1630 
all  showed  their  interest  in  schools  by  establishing  pensions  for 
teachers,  some  of  which  continue  to  the  present  day.  The  Barons 
did  not  follow  the  royal  example.  But  even  when  endowments 
did  reach  the  destination  for  which  they  were  intended,  their 
value  was  much  reduced  by  dilapidations  and  mismanagement, 
buildings  being  in  so  many  cases  ruinous  that  an  Act  of 
Parliament  was  passed^  to  remedy  the  evil. 

Trustees  in  those  days  seem  to  have  used  great  freedom  in 
the  interpretation  of  their  duties  ;  for  another  act  was  passed  in 
1633-'  and  ratified  sixty-three  years  afterwards'  forbidding  them 
to  do  as  they  pleased  with  mortifications  of  which  they  were 
trustees.  Instances  of  this  absorption  or  alienation  of  funds 
assigned  to  education  occurred  in  Kirkwall,  Irvine,  Paisley,  and 
in  many  other  places.     All  educational   foundations  were  pro- 

^  Act  of  rarliament,   1567,  c.  13,  III,  25. 

-  Report  on  EndoT.vcd  Schools,  \\,  425. 

^  Act  of  rarliament,  1594,  c.  98,  IV,  94. 

••  Ibid.  1633,  c.  6,  V,  22.  '  Ibid.  1696,  c.  29,  X,  64. 


I02      BURGH  AND  OTHER   SCHOOLS  FROM    1560   TO    1696      [CH. 

tected    by    parliament    and    received    special    exemption    from 
taxation^ 

In  treating  of  teachers'  emoluments  a  general  view  is  all  that 
can  be  attempted.  It  must  be  borne  in  mind  that  the  country 
was  poor,  money  scarce,  and  the  amount  secured  for  education 
from  church  lands  so  small  as  to  be  scarcely  worth  consideration. 
Another  source — endowments  made  by  private  persons — is  also 
of  comparatively  little  importance.  Here  and  there  a  successful 
merchant  or  a  benevolent  lady  mortified  small  amounts  for  the 
districts  in  which  they  were  interested.  Very  important  support 
was  furnished  by  the  Town  Councils  from  the  common  property 
of  the  burgh,  which  was  as  various  in  amount  as  in  source  and 
character— lands,  fishings,  feu  duties,  mills,  markets,  use  of  bells 
and  mortcloth  at  funerals,  fines  for  blood  and  battery,  &c.  When, 
as  sometimes  happened,  these  sources  fell  short  of  what  was 
required,  stentmasters  were  appointed  who  might  be  liberal  or 
niggardly  according  to  circumstances-.  In  161 2  a  number  of  the 
inhabitants  of  Inverury  rated  themselves  for  providing  "sillar 
and  victual "  for  the  teacher,  the  common  good  being  exhausted^ 

The  least  variable  and  most  important  source  of  the  teacher's 
emoluments  was  the  amount  received  in  fees,  which  were  rigidly 
exacted,  usually  in  advance,  from  all  who  were  able  to  pay. 
Failure  to  pay  was  followed  by  expulsion,  and  those  parents 
who  fell  into  arrears  were  liable  to  have  their  goods  poinded. 
The  Council  regulated  the  scale  of  fees ;  landward  pupils  paid 
more  than  burgesses,  the  poor  paid  less  than  the  full  amount, 
and  the  very  poor  were  educated  gratis. 

From  three  other  sources  contributions  were  made  towards 
the  teacher's  salary,  bent  silver  already  referred  to.  Candle- 
mas offerings  and  cock-money.  On  February  2  every  pupil  was 
expected  to  present  to  the  teacher  an  offering  in  money  depending 
in  amount  on  the  means  and  social  position  of  the  parents,  and 

^  Act  of  Parliament,  1587,  c.  8,  iii,  433. 

*  Stentmaster  was  the  person  appointed  to  fix  the  amount  of  any  duty  payable. 

'  The  items  of  this  contribution  are  instructive  as  showing  the  zeal  for  education 
and  the  different  circumstances,  but  on  the  whole  the  poverty  of  the  people.    Payments 
in  money  range  from  ^(is.  Sd.  to  4^-. ;  some  contribute  a  peck  of  meal,  others  a  firlot, 
others  two  firlots,  others  a  boll,  and  one  provides  a  free  house.     Burgh  Records  of 
Inverury. 


VI]  ENDOWMENTS   AND   STIPENDS   OF   TEACHERS  IO3 

a  holiday  was  granted.  In  country  districts  the  practice  was 
kept  up  till  the  middle  of  the  19th  century.  There  are  few 
school  customs  so  surprising  as  making  cock-fights  a  source  of 
emolument  for  the  teacher.  The  fights  took  place  in  the  school- 
room, none  but  scholars  and  gentlemen  and  persons  of  note 
being  present.  The  scholars  who  did  not  supply  cocks  paid 
money  contributions  by  way  of  compensation.  The  cocks  that 
would  not  fight,  and  those  killed  in  the  fight,  became  the 
perquisite  of  the  teacher.  It  is  very  remarkable  that  a  practice 
so  debasing  and  now  punishable  was,  up  to  the  end  of  the  i8th 
century,  not  only  permitted  but  encouraged  by  school  authorities 
and  persons  of  unquestionable  respectability  and  position. 

The  stipends  of  teachers,  at  no  time  large,  were,  early  in  the 
17th  century,  much  reduced  below  a  living  wage  through  bad 
seasons  and  consequent  dearth  of  provisions  and  multitude  of 
schools.  The  humble  appeals  for  augmentation  bring  out  in 
painful  contrast  the  dignity  of  the  master  in  former  times  and 
his  sordid  surroundings  during  the  subsequent  century*.  The 
master  was  usually  supplied  with  a  house  or  a  sum  of  money  in 
payment  of  rent.  We  have  in  the  burgh  records  of  Peebles  a 
description  of  such  a  house,  simple  but  probably  sufficient.  Fuel 
also  was  supplied  in  some  cases  by  the  parents  sending  periodi- 
cally a  "  kairtfull  of  turfes,"  or  by  the  Council  sending  a  specified 
quantity  of  peats  and  coaP.  Contributions  of  clothes  were 
sometimes  added  as  a  supplement  of  stipend — a  new  hat,  a  piece 
of  linen,  a  web  of  cloth,  a  piece  of  tanned  hide,  a  "  stand  of 
clayths  [a  suit  of  clothes]'." 

Towards  the  middle  and  end  of  the  17th  century  contributions 
by  benevolent  persons  in  the  shape  of  gifts  and  bequests  were 
made  for  payment  of  fees  and  partial  maintenance  at  burgh 
schools  of  children  of  poor  honest  men,  and  for  increase  of  the 

*  The  nLisler  of  Aberdeen  GramnLir  School  in  1620  beseeches  the  Council  to 
increase  his  salary,  saying  that  "  quhairas  ihair  wisdomes  exactis  a  dewtie  of  him  on 
the  ane  pairt,  so  it  will  not  offend  thame  on  the  uther  pairt  that  he  be  particular  in 
regrating  [improving]  his  estate,  the  Ireuth  quhaiioff  is,  he  has  not  ane  stipend  quhilk 
may  encourage  ane  honest  man  to  w.-ilk  in  sic  a  toillsum  callin  with  chearfulnes...and 
he  sees  no  correspondense  betwist  his  extraordinar  paynes  and  thi  ordinar  reward. 
Grant's  Burgh  Schools,  p.  481. 

2  Biirgii  Reiords  of  Peebles.  ^  Burgh  Records  of  Paisley  and  Ayr. 


104     BURGH  AND  OTHER  SCHOOLS  FROM   1560  TO  1696     [CH.  VI 

emoluments  of  teachers.  These,  however,  were  not  large  or 
numerous  enough  to  make  the  teacher's  position  enviable  from 
either  a  pecuniary  or  social  point  of  view. 

But  much  as  the  social  position  of  the  master  had  suffered, 
a  still  lower  depth  was  reached  by  the  under  teachers.  Customs 
change,  and  the  feelings  with  which  one  regards  them  undergo 
.corresponding  alterations,  but  it  is  difficult  to  believe  that  main- 
tenance of  self-respect,  and  of  wholesome  influence  over  pupils 
was  consistent  with  the  teacher's  going  from  house  to  house  for 
his  "meit  of  all  the  bairns  day  about,"  as  we  learn  from  the 
records  of  important  burghs  was  the  plight  of  the  grammar 
school  doctor  for  more  than  a  hundred  years^.  A  glimmer  of 
the  sordid  indignity  of  the  arrangement  seems  to  have  crossed 
the  imagination  of  the  Provost  and  Council  of  Stirling  who,  "  for 
the  better  flourishing  of  the  grammar  school,  modify  [substitute] 
for  the  board  and  entertainment  in  meat  of  the  Latin  doctor 
a  quarterly  payment  of  6/-  besides  the  scholage." 

It  is  difficult  to  understand  why  under  these  conditions  there 
should  have  been  a  "multitude  of  schools"  which  was  the  com- 
plaint of  an  Aberdeen  Rector.  A  more  natural  result  would 
have  been  the  disappearance  of  education  from  the  land. 

1  Burgh  Records  of  Haddington,  Kirkcaldy,  Stirling,  Peebles,  Ayr  and  Sanquhar. 


CHAPTER   VII 

SECOND    PERIOD   (1560  TO  1696).     ST  ANDREWS  UNIVERSITY 

On  the  abolition  of  papal  jurisdiction  and  ratification  of 
Protestant  doctrine  in  1560,  commission  was  given  by  an  order 
of  the  Privy  Council  to  prominent  reformers,  "  to  draw  in  a 
volume  the  policy  and  discipline  of  the  Kirk  as  well  as  they  had 
done  the  doctrine." 

The  task  of  framing  the  Book  of  Discipline  was  a  most 
difficult  one,  and  potentially  most  important  for  the  well-being  of 
Scotland.  The  Estates  had  been  practically  unanimous  in  settling 
the  Confession  of  Faith.  This  order  by  the  Privy  Council  had 
immeasurably  wider  scope  than  the  settlement  of  a  creed, 
covering  as  it  did  the  internal  policy  of  the  Church,  its  relation 
to  the  State,  its  attitude  towards  education,  and  the  inculcation 
of  such  procedure  in  domestic  matters  as  should  have  for  its  aim 
security  that  children  would  grow  up  useful  citizens,  and  occupy 
positions  in  society  suited  to  their  varying  ability.  All  the 
Commissioners  were  able  men  of  large  experience  both  at  home 
and  abroad,  the  greatest  of  whom  was  John  Knox.  The  duty 
was  undertaken  with  great  heartiness,  and  discharged  with  such 
statesmanlike  foresight  and  admirable  breadth  of  view,  as  should 
have  earned  for  it  the  approval  of  all  whose  judgment  was  free 
from  the  disturbing  influence  of  church  feeling  on  the  one  side, 
and  grasping  selfishness  on  the  other.  The  Book  of  Discipline 
unfortunately  had  to  pass  through  the  ordeal  of  both.  Those 
who  clung  to  the  ancient  church  could  not  be  expected  to 
approve,  while  the  nobles  and  gentry,  the  majorit)'  of  whom  had 
adopted  the  new  faith,  and  into  whose  hands  a  large  portion  of 


I06  SECOND   PERIOD.      ST   ANDREWS    UNIVERSITY  [CH. 

church  property  had  somehow  passed,  selfishly  refused  to  hand 
back  to  the  ministers  of  the  reformed  church  the  property  which 
unquestionably  belonged  to  the  church  whose  place  they  had 
taken.  The  measure  was  accordingly  approved  or  disliked 
according  as  religious  zeal  or  personal  considerations  exercised 
the  greater  influence.  That  the  conception  and  aim  of  its  authors 
were  excellent,  and  that  its  fuller  adoption  would  have  been 
entirely  beneficial  cannot  be  doubted.  That  it  fell  far  short  of 
being  realised  was  a  national  misfortune.  That  the  nobility  and 
gentry,  having  the  power,  appropriated  funds  that  were  the 
inheritance  of  the  poor,  of  education,  and  the  Kirk  is  intelligible, 
but  merits  the  strongest  condemnation.  Their  objection  to  the 
encroachment  on  personal  liberty  proposed  in  the  compulsory 
clause  dealing  with  the  education  of  rich  and  poor  alike  is  to 
some  extent  excusable,  but  still  much  to  be  regretted,  destroying 
as  it  did  a  scheme  of  national  education — a  school  in  every 
parish,  and  a  college  or  higher  school  in  every  notable  town — 
the  grandest  known  to  history. 

Though  the  First  Book  of  Discipline  was  never  carried  out, 
its  proposals  deserve  to  be  noticed. 

The  Commissioners  in  speaking  of  the  "  Erection  of  Uni- 
versities "  probably  meant  not  that  they  were  to  be  created  anew, 
but  to  be  established  under  new  regulations,  and  rescued  from 
the  moribund  condition  to  which  they  had  been  reduced  at  the 
time  of  the  Reformation.  The  establishment  of  another  in 
Edinburgh  was  not  thought  of.  The  medieval  notion  of  a 
university  was  departed  from.  Professors'  for  separate  subjects 
were  to  be  appointed  and  adequate  salaries  provided  for  them. 
These  professors  were  to  be  officers  of  the  colleges,  not  of  the 
university.  Each  Faculty  was  to  have  a  separate  organisation, 
and  the  combination  of  the  several  Faculties  constituted  the 
university.     The  title  '  Chancellor,'  which   usually  belonged   to 

^  Regents  is  the  word  used  in  tlie  Book  of  Discipline,  and  came  ultimately  to 
mean  Professors.  In  medieval  times  anyone  who  had  graduated  a  Master  might  be 
a  Regent.  Originally  a  Regent  conducted  a  class  through  all  subjects  up  to  graduation. 
This  continued  to  be  the  practice  in  Aberdeen  till  the  19th  century  though  the  name 
had  given  place  to  Professor.  The  two  who  were  the  last  appointed  to  chairs  by  the 
title  of  Regents  were  Clerk  Maxwell  in  Marischal  College  (1856),  and  Geddes  in 
King's  College  (1855). 


VII]       THE   BOOK   OF    DISCIPLINE   AND   THE    UNIVERSITY        IO7 

the  Bishops  of  the  three  dioceses,  was  aboHshcd,  and  in  its  place 
came  that  of  '  Superintendent,'  to  whom  as  head  of  the  institution 
certain  duties  administrative  and  academic  were  assigned.  The 
Rector  was  no  longer  to  be  a  regular  teacher.  His  duties  were 
regulation  and  supervision,  visiting  each  college  once  a  month, 
settling  disputes  between  members  of  the  university,  and  taking 
part  in  the  trial  of  criminal  actions  against  students.  The  Super- 
intendent, Rector,  their  assessors,  and  the  Bedell  are  the  only 
university  officers  mentioned.  Very  few  of  the  pre-Rcformation 
Rectors  of  St  Andrews  could  have  been  regular  teachers. 
They  were  mostly  prominent  churchmen  in  different  parts  of 
the  diocese,  and  must  have  been  to  a  very  large  extent  non- 
resident. 

St  Andrews  as  having  already  three  colleges  was  to  be  a 
complete  University,  giving  degrees  in  four  Faculties,  Philosophy, 
Medicine,  Law  and  Divinity.  In  one  college  Philosophy  and 
Medicine,  in  another  Law,  and  in  another  Divinity,  the  curri- 
culum in  the  first  three  Faculties  extending  over  five,  and  in 
Divinity  over  six  years.  Each  college  was  to  have  a  Principal, 
whose  duties  were  administration  and  supervision,  but  not 
teaching.  Twenty-four  bursars  were  to  be  appointed  on  con- 
sideration of  character  and  scanty  means  of  support.  Glasgow 
and  Aberdeen  were  to  have  two  colleges,  one  giving  degrees  in 
Philosophy,  the  other  in  Law  and  Divinity.  Regents  were  no 
longer  to  conduct  a  class  through  all  subjects.  Professors  were 
to  be  appointed  for  each  subject,  except  for  Medicine,  all  branches 
of  which  were  to  be  under  the  charge  of  one  teacher.  Neither 
Latin  nor  any  elementary  subject  was  to  be  taught  in  the 
university,  and  the  lectures  were  all  to  be  delivered  in  Latin. 

The  proposal  of  such  a  scheme  as  this  may  seem  an  extravagant 
counsel  of  perfection,  deserving  to  be  relegated  to  the  limbo  of 
other  'devout  imaginations.'  seeing  that,  after  the  experience 
and  efforts  of  nearly  three  and  a  half  centuries,  we  have  not  yet 
reached  the  goal  which  was  Knox's  noble  aim.  But  defence  of 
its  consistency  and  even  '  sweet  reasonableness'  is  not  impossible. 
The  university  scheme  did  not  stand  alone.  It  was  the  com- 
pletion of  a  fully  matured  system  of  national  education  b\-  which 
it  was  to  be  preceded,  and  which,  if  it  had  been  carried  out, 


I08  SECOND   PERIOD.      ST   ANDREWS    UNIVERSITY  [CH. 

would  have  been  a  perfection  of  symmetry  totJis,  teres,  atqne 
rotiuidiis.  It  was  intended  that  no  student  should  enter  the 
university  who  had  not  had  two  years  of  primary  instruction, 
three  or  four  years  of  Latin,  and  four  years  of  Greek,  Logic,  and 
Rhetoric,  and  so  be  from  sixteen  to  seventeen  years  of  age.  It 
is  also  to  be  borne  in  mind  that  Knox  meant  such  a  course  only 
for  those  who  showed  '  aptness  for  learning,'  and  recommended 
that  those  who  lacked  this  quality  should  betake  themselves  to 
some  useful  handicraft.  Given  national  co-operation,  open-handed 
liberality,  and  the  legitimate  use  instead  of  the  shameful  per- 
version of  funds  available  for  education,  Knox's  ideal  might 
have  been  realised. 

Nothing  is  more  hopeless  than  to  estimate  with  approximate 
accuracy  the  purchasing  power  of  money  at  the  time  of  the 
Reformation,  but  the  calculation  of  what  would  have  sufficed  for 
the  maintenance  of  the  three  universities  was  between  ^Tzooo 
and  i^3000  sterling. 

In  1563  the  lamentable  condition  of  the  universities  and 
especially  of  St  Andrews  was  brought  before  the  Queen  and 
Lords  of  the  Articles,  with  the  result  that  a  committee  was 
appointed  by  parliament  to  enquire  and  report'.  George 
Buchanan  was  a  prominent  member  of  it.  His  proposal  was 
less  ambitious  than  that  of  Knox,  The  most  noteworthy  change 
was  that,  as  the  scheme  for  higher  schools  in  every  notable  town 
had  failed,  in  one  of  the  colleges  languages  alone  should  be  taught. 
As  his  scheme  was  also  still-born  more  detailed  notice  of  it  is 
perhaps  unnecessary.  Had  either  scheme  been  adopted  the  basis 
of  university  education  would  have  been  broader.  University 
and  school  would  each  have  done  more  effectively  its  own 
proper  work.  In  both  schemes,  however,  we  have  evidence  of 
the  intellectual  awakening  produced  by  the  revival  of  learning. 

To  St  Andrews,  as  to  the  other  universities,  the  Reformation 
did  serious  injury.  Their  constitution  and  organisation  were 
upset  by  ecclesiastical  discord  ;  their  income  was  sadly  reduced 
by  the  rapacity  of  the  nobles  who  appropriated  the  lion's  share 
of  the  patrimony  of  the  Church.  From  a  greatly  diminished 
income  they  had  to  uphold  the  stipends  of  the  parishes  which 

'  Acts  of  Parliament,  H,  544. 


VIl]  EFFECTS   OF   THE    REFORMATION    TROUBLES  IO9 

belonged  to  them.  This  was  necessarily  accompanied  by  a 
reduction  of  the  salaries  of  the  professors,  for  which  certain 
grants  by  successive  administrations  made  small  but  inadequate 
amends.  The  attendance  of  students  was  also  injuriously  affected. 
A  year  or  two  before  the  Reformation  the  matriculation  of 
students  was  small  "owing  to  tumults  about  religion."  Mr  Mait- 
land  Anderson,  Librarian  of  St  Andrews,  has  given,  with  highly 
probable  approximation  to  accuracy,  the  average  number  of 
entrants  or  first  matriculations  in  the  i6th  and  17th  centuries 
as  44  and  60  respectively. 

The  diminution  in  the  number  of  students  immediately 
before  and  for  some  years  after  the  Reformation  does  not 
warrant  the  inference  that  the  authorities  were  negligent  or 
incapable.  It  must  be  remembered  that  the  student  had  not 
yet  given  up  the  habit  of  going  wherever  the  reputation  of 
famous  teachers  led  him,  and  that  foreign  universities  had  not 
ceased  to  be  attractive.  To  this  as  well  as  to  attenuated 
endowments  and  religious  discord  the  reduced  attendance  was 
probably  due. 

While  the  success  of  the  other  two  universities  was  seriously 
marred  by  the  Reformation,  St  Andrews  was  probably  the 
greatest  sufferer.  The  elements  of  discord  and  confusion  were 
there  more  abundant  and  violent.  It  was  the  oldest,  and  the 
.seat  of  the  primacy.  Monastic  traditions  were  more  deeply 
rooted  there  than  in  Glasgow  and  Aberdeen.  The  defenders  of 
the  old  faith  were  more  powerful,  and  also  more  violent  and 
unscrupulous  than  elsewhere.  Here  alone  were  there  three 
colleges,  two  warmly  attached  to  the  old  order  of  things,  the 
other  resolute  to  overthrow  it.  In  these  circumstances  the 
wonder  is,  not  that  academic  j)rogress  was  temporarily  checked, 
but  that  is  was  not  wholly  obliterated. 

"  Our  haill  College,"  says  James  Melville,  speaking  of  St 
Leonard's,  "  maisters  and  schollars,  was  sound  and  zealous  in  the 
guid  cause  ;  the  other  twa  colleges  nocht  sa  ;  for  in  the  new 
college,  howbeit  Mr  John  Douglass,  their  Rector,  was  guid 
aneuch,  the  three  other  maisters  and  sum  of  the  Regents  war 
evill-myndit^" 

^  James  Melville's  Diary ^  p.  26  ;   1843. 


no  SECOND   PERIOD.      ST   ANDREWS    UNIVERSITY  [CH. 


The  disorganisation  resulting  from  this  state  of  matters  was 
left  practically  unremedied  for  nearly  twenty  years.  The  ever- 
lasting round  of  scholastic  philosophy  and  the  mode  of  teaching 
remained  unchanged.  Something  different  from  this  might  natur- 
ally have  been  expected  from  St  Leonard's,  the  principalship  of 
which  had  been  held  for  four  years  by  such  an  adventurous  spirit 
as  George  Buchanan.  That  he  did  not  attempt  to  shake  himself 
free  from  some  of  the  trammels  of  medievalism  is  probably  due 
to  the  fact  that,  unrivalled  as  his  scholarship  was,  the  character 
of  his  intellect  demanded  a  wider  and  more  inspiriting  sphere 
than  the  lecture  room  ;  that  his  leanings  were  firstly  political, 
and  only  secondarily  academic. 

The  scheme  for  university  reform  proposed  in  the  First  Book 
of  Discipline  was,  as  we  have  seen,  not  carried  out.  The  less 
ambitious  one  already  referred  to  for  which  George  Buchanan  was 
mainly  responsible  shared  the  same  fate.  In  1578  parliament 
appointed  a  Commission  to  examine  and  report  on  the  condition 
of  all  the  universities^  This  also  had  no  result.  In  the  following 
year  the  General  Assembly  presented  a  petition  to  the  King  and 
Council  urging  the  necessity  of  reforming  St  Andrews.  The 
Council  appointed  Commissioners  for  this  purpose  with  full 
powers  to  remove  unqualified  persons,  to  change  the  form  of 
study  and  the  number  of  professors,  to  join  or  divide  the  Faculties, 
to  annex  each  Faculty  to  such  college  as  they  thought  most 
proper  for  it,  &c.  The  Commissioners  found  that  in  all  the 
colleges  the  original  foundations  had  been  departed  from,  that 
the  foundations  disagreed  in  many  things  with  the  true  religion, 
and  were  far  from  "  that  perfection  of  teaching  which  this  learned 
age  craves,"  and  they  agreed  upon  a  new  form  of  instruction  to 
be  observed  in  the  university".  This  was  laid  before  parliament 
and  ratified  in  1579. 

To  enumerate  in  detail  all  the  changes  proposed  by  this 
Commission  would  far  exceed  our  limits.  Some  are,  however, 
specially  worthy  of  mention"'.  Professorships  of  Mathematics 
and  Law  were  to  be  established  in  St  Salvator's.     The  Principal 

^  Act  of  Parliament,  in,  98. 

'  Act,  vol.  Ill,  179,  and  M'Crie's  Life  of  Melville,  i,  241,  ed.  1824. 

'  Acts  of  Scottish  Parliaments,  vol.  ill,  178 — 182. 


VII]  REORGANISATION    AFTKR   THE    REFORMATION  HI 

was  to  act  as  Professor  of  Medicine.  Much  the  same  arrange- 
ments were  made  for  St  Leonard's,  but  in  it  Mathematics  and 
Law  were  not  to  be  taught.  Aristotelian  Logic  and  Physics  were 
no  longer  to  have  exclusive  authority.  Only  the  "  most  profitable 
and  needful  parts  "  were  to  be  dealt  with,  and  lectures  on  Platonic 
philosophy  were  to  serve  as  a  counterpoise  to  the  Peripatetic — 
perhaps  the  earliest  evidence  of  a  tendency  towards  supplanting 
medieval  by  modern  notions.  St  Mary's  was  to  be  entirely 
devoted  to  the  study  of  theology  with  a  staff  of  five  masters. 
The  first  was  to  teach  the  Oriental  languages;  the  second  to  teach 
the  law  of  Moses  and  historical  books  of  the  Old  Testament ;  the 
third  to  e.xplain  the  prophetical  books  ;  the  fourth  to  teach  the 
New  Testament  in  Greek  and  Syriac,  and  the  fifth  to  teach  the 
commonplaces,  but  the  staff  fell  far  short  of  this,  and  was  often 
represented  by  two  professors  who  undertook  the  whole  of  the 
instruction  in  theology.  The  first  Professor  of  Hebrew  was 
appointed  in  1668.  Every  fourth  year  a  visitation  was  to  be 
made  to  see  how  far  the  changes  were  observed  and  effective. 

It  is  impossible  to  question  the  general  excellence  of  the 
programme  thus  proposed,  and  equally  impossible  to  contend 
that  it  was  more  than  very  partially  carried  out.  If  James 
Melville's  Diary  is  to  be  trusted,  his  uncle  Andrew  had  a  large 
and  probably  the  principal  share  in  drawing  it  up^  The  thorough- 
ness and  comprehensive  grasp  of  the  reforms  proposed  not  only 
bear  the  stamp  of  his  character,  but  are  to  a  large  extent  a 
reproduction  of  what  he  did  successfully  for  Glasgow  five  years 
before.  It  was  perhaps  too  drastic  and  in  some  respects  im- 
practicable, except  under  the  action  of  men  of  Melville's  own 
marvellous  industry  and  untiring  energy.  The  proposals  in  it 
to  which  this  objection  may  be  taken  are  probabl}'  due  to  his 
presupposing  in  others  the  courageous  qualities  he  himself 
possessed.  That  Buchanan  lent  his  aid  is  very  probable,  but 
his  somewhat  laissez-faire  attitude  towards  academic  reform 
during  his  occupancy  of  the  principalship  of  St  Leonard's  from 
1566  to  1570  makes  his  initiative  in  the  reforms  of  1579  at  least 
doubtful.  It  is  certain  that  he  was  the  most  distinguished 
scholar  among  the  Commissioners,  but  scholarship  rather  than 

^  Melville's  Diary,  pp.  58,  64;   1S29. 


112  SECOND   PERIOD.      ST   ANDREWS   UNIVERSITY  [CH. 

administration  and  organisation  was  the  most  marked  feature  in 
his  character. 

When  the  changes  involved  in  the  scheme  were  about  to  be 
made,  it  was  on  all  sides  agreed  that  Melville,  then  Principal  of 
Glasgow,  was  eminently  qualified  for  the  principalship  of  St 
Mary's  College.  His  character  and  experience  marked  him  out 
as  singularly  fitted  to  bring  order  out  of  confusion.  After  com- 
pleting his  course  at  St  Andrews  he  had  sojourned  in  France 
and  Switzerland,  had  seen  a  great  part  of  the  struggle  between 
the  Catholics  and  Huguenots,  had  gained  the  friendship  of  the 
reformer  Beza,  and,  after  breathing  freely  the  atmosphere  of  the 
Presbyterianism  of  Geneva,  had  returned  to  Scotland  full  of 
strong  and  tempered  enthusiasm.  Though  the  reorganisation 
of  St  Mary's  College  was  a  subject  in  which  he  was  especially 
interested,  he  was  most  unwilling  to  leave  Glasgow  University, 
which  he  had  rescued  from  approximate  extinction  and  raised 
to  a  position  of  great  prosperity.  The  university  authorities  also 
strongly  opposed  his  removal,  but  a  letter  from  the  King  to  the 
General  Assembly  intimating  his  wish  that  Melville  should 
accept  the  appointment  made  compliance  inevitable^  He  was 
accordingly  transferred  to  St  Andrews  in  1580,  and  was  succeeded 
in  Glasgow  by  Smeaton. 

In  1580  when  Episcopacy  had  its  first  innings  under  the 
Tulchan  Bishops,  and  Archbishop  Adamson  was  Chancellor, 
Melville  was  installed-.  His  nephew  James  was  admitted  as 
Professor  of  Oriental  tongues.  John  Robertson  was  the  only 
Regent  not  displaced  under  the  new  arrangements.  Melville's 
marked  success  in  Glasgow  fully  justified  his  appointment.  His 
position,  as  might  be  expected,  was  a  difficult  one.  He  had  to 
face  the  opposition  always  offered  to  reformers  of  old  institutions, 
the  anger  of  the  removed  professors  and  the  claims  of  arrears  of 
salaries  said  to  be  due.  But  another  and  greater  difficulty  had 
to  be  overcome.  By  his  lectures,  showing  that  parts  of  Aristo- 
telian philosophy  were  inconsistent  with  both  natural  and  revealed 

1  W Cne^s  Life  of  Melville,  I,  i6o,  ed.  1824. 

2  Tulchan  was  a  calf's  skin  stuffed  with  straw  used  to  induce  a  cow  to  give  her 
milk  freely.  The  term  was  used  to  describe  the  titular  Bishops  who  in  1572  held 
office,  but  allowed  most  of  the  revenues  under  their  charge  to  be  absorbed  by  the 
nobles  as  lay  patrons. 


Vir]  TIIK    I'RIXfll'AI.SHII'    OF    ANDRKW    MKI.VII.LE  II3 

religion,  he  aroused  the  wrath  of  the  other  colleges'.  Undeterred 
by  clamour  he  in  two  years  silenced  his  opponents  by  his  earnest- 
ness, erudition,  eloquence,  and  strength  of  character,  and  brought 
to  his  side  many  of  his  most  bitter  antagonists-.  In  his  dealing 
with  them  he  induced  them  to  take  up  the  careful  study  of 
Aristotle  in  the  original,  and  by  this  means  made  them  both 
philosophers  and  theologians.  "  But  this,"  said  his  nephew,  "  was 
nocht  done  without  mikle  feghting  and  fasherie\" 

I'^rom  a  review  of  the  condition  of  Scotland  durinfr  the  latter 
half  of  the  i6th  and  the  whole  of  the  17th  century  it  is  not  too 
much  to  say  that  no  other  country  underwent  an  ordeal  so  pro- 
hibitive of  university  progress  as  that  which  fell  to  the  lot  of 
Scotland.  The  University  and  the  Church  were  connected  by  the 
closest  ties.  Whatever  affected  the  latter  was  immediately  and 
keenly  felt  by  the  former.  Throughout  that  century  and  a  half, 
at  intervals  of  twenty  years  or  so,  the  alternate  ebb  and  flow  of 
stern  and  moderate  Presbyterianism,  of  spurious  and  genuine 
Kpiscopacy  had  to  be  faced.  Each  change  necessitated  the 
appointment  of  a  fresh  Commission  whose  duty  it  was  to  adapt 
university  conditions  to  the  wishes  of  the  Church  for  the  time  in 
the  ascendant.  In  these  circumstances  confusion  and  destruction 
of  discipline  were  inevitable,  steady  progress  impossible.  The 
enactments  of  the  various  Commissions  were  more  or  less  dis- 
regarded. All  the  teachers  might,  and  many  did,  do  whatever 
seemed  right  in  their  own  eyes.  It  would  seem  from  a  memorial 
of  the  visitation  of  1588  that  the  condition  of  the  university  was 
far  from  satisfactory  even  eight  years  after  Melville's  occupancy 
of  the  principalship.  The  memorial  opens  with  the  statement 
"  It  is  mast  difficill  in  this  confused  tyme...to  cffectuat  ony  gude 
commoun  werk,  althogh  men  wer  nevir  sa  weill  willit ;  and 
speciallie  cjuhair  ye  ar  not  certanly  instructit,  and  lies  na  greit 
hope  of  thankes  for  your  travell."  This  was  the  state  of  matters 
so  far  as  the  teachers  are  concerned.  But  the  end  of  the  report 
shows  the  students  to  be  in  no  better  case.     The  Regents  are 

'  "  Tlicir  hrcatlwimier,  their  honor,  their  estinuition,  all  \va>  jjoan,  gift"  .\ristotle 
should  be  so  owirhailcd  in  the  hearinij  ot  their  schollars."  Melville's  Diary,  p.  1 23, 
ed.  1842. 

-  ^VCne's  Life-  0/ MclvilU-,  i,  171,  ed.  18:4. 

^  Melville's  Diary,  p.  124,  ed.  1842. 

K.  E.  8 


114  SECOND    TERIOD.      ST   ANDREWS    UNIVERSITY  [CH. 

advised  to  "forbid  thair  (the  students)  querrelling... albeit  it  be  not 
altogidder  prohibite  that  thay  fiyte  (i.e.  wrangle  or  scold),  yit 
forbid  fechting  or  bearing  of  daggis  (pistols)  or  swerdis." 

How  far  this  chaotic  condition  of  matters  can  be  charged 
against  Melville  it  is  difficult  to  determine.  He  has  been  accused 
of  sacrificing  to  some  extent  his  academic  duties  to  the  teaching 
of  republicanism,  and  of  discussing  whether  the  election  or 
succession  of  rulers  was  to  be  preferred,  and  of  hinting  doubts  as 
to  the  divine  right  of  kings.  It  is  certain  that  he  did  not  find 
within  the  narrow  precincts  of  a  university  an  arena  wide  enough 
for  the  exercise  of  his  overmastering  energy.  Affairs  of  Church 
and  State  had  a  great  charm  for  him.  His  keen  interest  in 
general  as  well  as  in  ecclesiastical  politics  is  well  known.  He 
was  of  too  ardent  a  spirit  to  disregard  questions  involving  im- 
portant principles.  The  university  was  much  to  him  but  it  was 
not  all,  and  there  is  a  limit  to  the  exertions  of  even  the  most 
indefatigable  administrator.  It  is  therefore  probable  that  the 
charge  of  laxity  in  the  management  of  the  university  was  not 
entirely  without  foundation. 

Of  his  fearlessness  in  the  presence  of  royalty  his  behaviour 
on  at  least  one  occasion  leaves  no  doubts  Of  his  beneficent 
influence  on  academic  pursuits  there  can  be  but  one  opinion. 
Great  and  entirely  wholesome  as  that  influence  was,  it  would 
have  been  more  widespread  and  permanent  in  the  years  that 
followed,  had  it  not  been  checked  by  the  ecclesiastical  and 
political  turmoils  of  the  17th  century,  in  which  no  room  could 
be  found  for  the  steady  pursuit  of  learning  and  literature.  Burton 
claims  for  Melville  a  type  of  character  hke  that  of  Hildebrand 
or  Thomas  a  Becket. 

The  scheme  formulated  in  1579  had  evidently  proved  in  some 
respects  unworkable,  for  the  ratification  of  that  scheme  was  re- 
pealed and  the  original  foundations  were  restored  by  parliament 
in  St  Andrews  in  1621,  and  two  years  previously  in  Aberdeen. 

'  In  1596,  wlien  the  King  attended  divine  service  in  the  Town  Church  of  St 
Andrews,  the  preacher  [Melville]  expressed  some  sentiments  of  which  the  King 
disapproved.  He  interrupted  the  preacher  and  ordered  him  to  desist.  Indignant 
at  this  interference,  Melville  rose  and  sha(j)ly  rebuked  the  King,  and  censured  the 
Commissioners  of  the  Church  for  sitting  in  silence.  Principal  Shairp  in  Fraser's 
Magazine,   1882,  p.  44. 


Vri]  FOREIGN    STUDENTS    IN    ST   ANDREWS  II5 

Till  the  royal  visitation  in  17 18  one  fruitless  Commission 
followed  another  and  practically  nothing  of  importance  was  done. 
In  spite  of  these  retarding  influences  St  Andrews  seems,  under 
the  vigorous  administration  of  Melville,  to  have  maintained  so 
much  of  its  former  reputation  as  to  be  still  attractive  to  students 
from  the  Continent,  the  annual  average  of  whom  between  1588 
and  1610  was  seven  or  eight.  Neither  was  royal  favour  entirely 
withdrawn.  A  university  or  common  library  was  founded  by 
King  James  in  161 2.  This  was  gradually  enlarged  by  donations 
of  books  from  various  quarters,  and  subsequently  the  separate 
libraries  of  the  three  colleges  were  combined  with  it. 

On  January  15,  1691,  seven  new  Regents  were  admitted  on  the 
nomination  of  William  and  Mary — four  in  St  Salvator's  College, 
and  three  in  St  Leonard's.  This  would  seem  to  indicate  that  a 
corresponding  number  had  been  evicted  for  refusing  to  take  the 
oath  of  allegiance. 

Between  the  time  of  Melville  and  the  end  of  the  17th  century 
there  are  no  trustworthy  sources  of  information,  and  such  as 
exist  have  little  educational  significance.  And  yet  within  the 
century  in  which  such  men  as  Knox,  Buchanan,  Spottiswoode, 
Henderson,  Rutherford,  Montrose,  and  others,  fretted  their  little 
hour  on  the  St  Andrews  stage,  in  the  battledore  and  shuttlecock 
vicissitudes  of  Presbyterian  and  Episcopal  supremacy,  there 
must  have  been  many  incidents  worthy  of  being  recorded,  but 
of  which  comparatively  few  traces  remain.  It  is  recorded  that  a 
Professor  of  Mathematics  was  appointed  in  1668.  In  1690  a 
Commission  was  appointed  and  empowered  to  remove  all  officials 
who  refused  to  take  the  oath  of  allegiance  to  William  and  Mary. 
Of  the  extent  to  which  this  power  was  exercised  there  is  no 
authentic  record. 


8—2 


CHAPTER   VIII 

SECOND    PERIOD    (1560  TO    1696).     GLASGOW   UNIVERSITY 

In  dealing  with  the  condition  of  Glasgow  University  up  to 
1560  we  saw  that  it  was  very  unsatisfactory,  and  that  the 
Reformation  troubles  had  added  to  its  further  decay,  as  shown 
in  Queen  Mary's  letter  in  1563  (p.  57).  On  being  desired  to 
do  something  for  its  improvement  she  founded  bursaries  for  five 
poor  scholars,  and  gave  for  their  support  some  property  which 
belonged  to  the  Preaching  Friars.  This  was  the  first  foundation 
of  bursaries^  Some  years  later  she  granted  a  charter  assigning 
all  the  monastic  property  in  Glasgow  to  the  town  council.  This 
gift  was  to  be  handed  down  to  posterity  as  "  Queen  Mary's 
Foundation  for  the  Ministers  and  Hospitals  of  Glasgow."  Though 
intended  by  Mary  for  the  ministers  and  poor,  the  town  council  in 
1572  on  the  advice  of  James  VI  made  a  present  of  it  to  the 
college  of  Glasgow.  The  deed  conveying  it  bore  the  title  of  the 
•'  New  Foundation  of  the  College  or  Pedagogy  of  Glasgow  by 
the  Town-,"  and  was  shortly  afterwards  ratified  by  parliament. 
At  this  time  the  existing  Pedagogy  was  said  to  be  a  ruin  and 
its  studies  extinct.  This  foundation  did  not  in  any  way  affect 
the  constitution  of  the  university.  It  was  simply  an  attempt  to 
strengthen  or  revive  the  Faculty  of  Arts.  The  town  council 
seem  to  have  contented  themselves  with  the  right  of  presentation 
of  poor  students  for  bursaries  in  return  for  their  gift. 

When  this  gift  came  to  be  dealt  with  by  the  university 
authorities  with  the  help  of  George  Buchanan,  its  value  had  been 
enormously  reduced  by  the  fraudulent  sale  and  alienation  of 
lands  and  benefices,  and  also  by  a  clause  in  the  charter  providing 

*  Munimenta,  i,  68.  ^  Ibid,  i,  82. 


CII.  VIIl]      ORGANISATION    OF   THE   'NKW    FOUNDATION'        II7 

that  the  chaplains,  friars,  and  other  CathoHc  officials  should  have 
the  life-rent  of  their  benefices.  The  j)roperty,  secured  against 
fraud  and  carefully  administered,  would  have  been  sufficient  to 
give  to  the  scheme  proposed  under  the  "  New  Foundation  by  the 
Town  "  a  favourable  start,  and  sufficient  maintenance  for  a  more 
complete  staff.  It  turned  out  that  the  annual  revenue  from  the 
long  list  of  monastic  buildings  and  lands  was  only  iJ^300  Scots'. 

In  view  of  such  meagre  provision  it  was  arranged  that  the 
staff  should  consist  of  fifteen  members — a  Principal,  two  Regents, 
and  twelve  Bursars.  Regents  were  graduates  who  were  anxious 
to  become  teachers  in  the  university,  and  were  pledged  to 
continue  in  office  for  six  years.  Each  Regent,  as  already  men- 
tioned, took  his  pupils  with  him  through  all  the  subjects  of  the 
curriculum,  which  has  been  described  as  a  "  dreary  single-manned 
Aristotelian  quadriennium."  Being  generally  young  men  they 
were  satisfied  with  the  slender  emoluments  of  their  office.  In 
the  absence  of  funds  required  to  secure  teachers  of  eminence  the 
university  had  to  be  content  with  such  raw  materials  for  much  of 
the  staff,  and  must  have  had  its  efficiency  impaired.  There  was 
usually  no  scarcity  of  candidates  for  the  office,  and  competition 
for  it  was  sometimes  exceedingly  keen.  We  find  that  in  1690  no 
fewer  than  nine  candidates  presented  themselves  for  a  vacancy, 
all  of  whom  acquitted  themselves  so  well  and  so  equall)%  that 
the  examiners  could  not  decide  which  was  best,  and  settled  the 
election  by  lot.  The  other  eight  received  each  five  pounds 
"because  they  had  behaved  very  well  and  had  been  at  charge  in 
attending  the  trials-." 

For  sixteen  years  the  university  had  been  preserved  from 
extinction  mainly  by  the  efforts  of  Principal  Davidson.  As  the 
New  Foundation  furnished  maintenance  for  only  the  two  Regents 
and  scarcely  anything  for  the  Bursars,  "the  students  gradually 
dispersed,  and  on  the  death  of  Davidson  the  classes  were  com- 
pletel)'  broken  up*," 

Brighter  days  were  not  far  off.  In  1574  Andrew  Melville 
returned  from  the  Continent  where  he  had  been  a  student  in 

'  M'Crie's  Life  of  Melville,  i,  p.  70. 

-  Muitinictita,  n,  351. 

*  M'Crie's  Life  of  ALelville,  i,  p.  71, 


Il8  SECOND    PERIOD.      GLASGOW    UNIVERSITY  [CU. 

Paris,  a  regent  in  Poitiers,  and  a  professor  in  Geneva,  stimulated  by 
the  renaissance  atmosphere,  full  of  enthusiasm  and  new  ideas,  in 
the  vigour  of  youth,  and  of  overmastering  energy.  His  reputa- 
tion preceded  him,  and  his  needed  help  was  eagerly  contended 
for  by  both  St  Andrews  and  Glasgow.  The  sad  plight  of  the 
latter  had  the  stronger  claim,  and  he  accepted  the  principalship. 
His  duties  as  Principal  under  the  "New  Foundation"  above 
mentioned  were  merely  supervision  and  lecturing  on  Sunday. 
This  was  not  enough  for  him.  He  saw  what  a  heavy  task  he 
had  undertaken,  and  resolved  to  reform' the  course  of  study  and 
train  teachers  fit  to  maintain  it  at  a  high  level. 

To  cover  even  superficially  such  a  vast  range  of  subjects  his 
knowledge  must  have  been  encyclopaedic,  and  his  industry  un- 
tiring. Greek  is  said  to  have  been  taught  in  Montrose  School  in 
1553  but  Glasgow  seems  to  be  the  first  Scottish  University 
in  which  it  was  taught.  His  teaching  combined  appreciative 
and  advanced  humanism  and  a  more  or  less  vigorous  revolt 
against  scholastic  philosophy.  The  .selected  portions  of  Aristotle 
were  read  in  the  original  text.  His  work  as  described  by  his 
nephew  is  characterised  by  a  freshness,  vigour,  and  modern  spirit 
entirely  new  in  Scotland. 

His  four  years'  curriculum  in  Arts  differs  little  from  the  19th 
century  curriculum  of  Scottish  universities. 

1st  year.  Humanity  (i.e.  Greek  and  Latin)  and  the  dialectic 
of  Ramus. 

2nd  year.     Mathematics,  Cosmography  and  Astronomy. 

3rd  year.     Moral  and  Political  sciences. 

4th  year.     Natural  Philosophy  and  Hi.story'. 

The  comparison  in  respect  of  breadth  is  in  Melville's  favour. 
Cosmography  and  astronomy  are  not  yet  included  in  all  the 
Arts  courses,  and  history  has  but  lately,  and  not  universally, 
found  a  place. 

The  theological  course  covered  two  years,  and  included 
Hebrew,  the  Chaldaic  and  Syriac  dialects,  several  books  of  the 
Old  Testament,  the  Epistle  to  the  Galatians,  and  all  the  common- 
places of  theology. 

The  above  programme  of  studies  is  a  fairly  correct  summary 

'   .Sir  A.  ijiX!in\.\  Story  of  Edinburgh  University,  I,  82. 


i 


VIIl]  CURRICULUM   IN    ARTS   AND  THEOLOGY  IlQ 

of  the  work  described  in  Melville's  Diary,  and  was  probably  that 
with  which  Andrew  Melville  commenced  on  his  appointment  to 
the  principalship,  but  the  exact  description  of  the  work  assigned 
to  the  three  Regents  on  the  establishment  of  the  nova  erectio  was 
the  following: — one  was  to  teach  Greek  and  rhetoric;  another, 
dialectics,  morals,  and  politics,  with  the  elements  of  arithmetic 
and  geometry,  and  a  third,  physiology,  geography,  chronology 
and  astrology  ^ 

This  did  not  represent  the  complete  Arts  curriculum  of 
medieval  times  which  as  already  mentioned  consisted  of  two 
portions,  the  Trivium  and  Quadrivium — the  three  Arts  (gram- 
mar, dialectic  and  rhetoric),  and  the  four  sciences  (music, 
arithmetic,  geometry  and  astrology). 

The  Regent,  now  for  the  first  time  in  Scotland,  was  confined 
to  a  prescribed  department.  The  professorial  system  was  intro- 
duced and  continued  till  1642.  Regenting  was  reintroduced  and 
continued  till  1727,  when  a  return  was  made  to  the  professoriate 
which  continues  till  now.  In  1688  common  tables  were  dis- 
continued, but  a  few  students  lived  in  college  for  some  time 
thereafter.  In  the  same  year  the  Snell  exhibitions  to  Oxford 
were  founded,  their  original  values  being  £^0  for  10  years  to 
each  of  10  students.     Their  present  value  is  i^So  for  five  years. 

Under  the  enthusiastic  management  of  Melville  the  fame  of 
Glasgow  spread  throughout  the  kingdom.  Outside  the  lecture 
room  he  found  a  field  for  the  profitable  exercise  of  his  energy. 
By  his  efforts  the  valuable  living  of  Govan  with  all  its  revenues, 
lands,  &c.  was  secured  for  the  university,  and  amply  compensated 
for  the  benefices  and  emoluments  that  had  been  swept  away  at 
the  Reformation.  The  nova  erectio  had  for  its  object,  as  described 
in  the  deed,  the  collecting  of  the  remains  of  the  university 
{coUigere  reliqicias  Academiae).  This  expression  is  apparently 
inconsistent  with  James  Melville's  account  of  his  uncle's  early 
success,  viz.  that  "  the  name  of  the  college  within  two  years  was 
noble  throughout  all  the  land  and  in  other  countries  also-''  and 
that  the  students  were  so  numerous  that  the  rooms  were  not  able 
to  receive  them.    As  Andrew  Melville  became  Principal  in  1574, 

'   University  of  Glasgmv,  Old  and  N'rw,  p.  34. 
^  James  Melville's  Diary,  p.  49,  ed.  1842. 


I20  SECOND    PERIOD.      GLASGOW    UNIVERSITY  [CH. 

and  the  nova  erectio  did  not  take  effect  till  1577,  the  collecting  of 
the  remains  had  been  already  accomplished.  Whatever  the 
explanation,  the  success  is  unquestionable.  Given  that  James 
Melville  had  an  adequate  acquaintance  with  the  other  universities 
of  Europe,  and  allowance  being  made  for  a  not  unnatural 
exao-geration  of  his  uncle's  merits,  he  had  still  some  justification 
for  saying  that  at  the  end  of  his  six  years'  principalship  "  there 
was  no  place  in  Europe  comparable  to  Glasgow  for  good  letters 
during  these  years  for  a  plentiful  and  good  cheap  market  of 
all  kinds  of  languages,  arts,  and  sciences'." 

The  nova  erectio,  which  was  mainly  the  result  of  a  conference 
between  Arbuthnot,  Principal  of  King's  College,  Aberdeen,  and 
Melville,  sanctioned  all  the  changes  already  made,  and  provided 
for  the  maintenance  of  twelve  persons  who  should  reside  in  the 
college — the  Principal,  three  Regents,  an  Economus  (Steward), 
four  poor  students  and  three  servants.  Among  the  other  duties 
falling  to  the  Principal  was  the  maintenance  of  scholastic  discipline 
between  the  students  and  the  Regents.  For  this  purpose  he 
received  "  the  belt  of  correction."  We  have  in  this  provision  for 
corporal  puni.shment  an  indication  of  the  boyish  age  of  the 
students-.  Melville  assigned  the  disagreeable  duty  to  the 
Regents.  Such  harmless  and  healthy  amusements  as  playing 
at  ball  and  bathing  were  regarded  as  criminal,  and  were 
punished  by  whipping  and  expulsion^ 

Bursars  were  to  be  maintained  for  three  years  and  a  half, 
which  was  the  time  required  for  taking  the  degree  of  Master  of 
Arts.  The  Rector,  Dean  of  Faculty,  and  the  minister  of  Glasgow 
were  to  visit  the  college  four  times  a  year,  examine  the  accounts, 
and  see  that  the  intentions  of  the  foundation  were  properly 
carried  out.  As  already  mentioned  Melville  was  transferred 
to  St  Andrews  in  1580,  but  the  impulse  he  had  given  was 
long  afterwards  conspicuous  in  the  successful  efforts  of  his 
successors.     In   1581   the  Archbishop  of  Glasgow  gave  to  the 

^  James  Melville's  Diary,  p.  50,  ed.  1842. 

*  M'Crie's  Life  of  Melville,  i,  82.  In  English  universities  as  late  as  the  17th 
century  corporal  puni.shment  was  inflicted  on  gentlemen  who  wore  swords  and  were 
about  to  commence  the  study  of  law  in  an  Inn  of  Court  in  London.  Iluber  and 
Newman,    The  English   Universities,  vol.  I,   206. 

*  Munimenta,  11,  48  and  50. 


VIII]  CURRICULUM    OF   TIIF   NOP'A   KRECTIO  |2I 

college  the  customs  of  the  city  which  provided  funds  fcjr  a 
fourth  Regent,  and  we  find  a  new  division  of  the  Chairs  in  Arts. 
The  distribution  of  subjects  among  the  four  Regents  was  the 
following.  The  highest  Regent,  Professor  of  Physiology  (Doctrine 
of  Nature);  the  second,  Professor  of  Moral  Philosophy;  the  third, 
Professor  of  Logic  and  Rhetoric ;  and  the  fourth,  Professor  of 
Greek'.  It  is  noteworthy  that  mathematics  is  not  represented 
in  this  programme. 

The  number  of  graduates  continued  to  increase.  In  1595 
greater  value  began  to  be  attached  to  the  title  of  Master  of  Arts, 
and  those  who  graduated  were  arranged  in  the  order  of  merit. 
As  a  stimulus  to  the  growing  habit  the  graduation  ceremonial 
was  made  an  important  function,  at  which  guests  were  present 
and  entertainments  of  various  kinds  were  provided.  There  was 
on  all  hands  evidence  of  healthy  interest  and  vitality.  This 
state  of  matters  remained  practically  unchanged  for  a  consider- 
able time  In  1621  we  find  the  Chancellor  and  other  officials 
awarding  to  the  four  Regents  for  their  faithful  work  1000  marks 
to  be  divided  among  them  in  certain  proportions  over  and  above 
their  fixed  emoluments.  There  was  no  Chair  of  Humanity  till 
1 637-.  In  the  same  year  a  Professor  of  Medicine  was  ap- 
pointed. 

In  1640  a  commission  of  visitation  ordained  the  following 
course  of  study. 

1st  year.     Besides  Greek  a  compend  of  Logic. 

2nd  year.  Besides  Logic,  Trepi  kpixr)veia<i,  to  be  taught  with 
the  elements  of  Arithmetic. 

3rd  year.  Besides  Logic  the  5th  and  6th  books  of  Aristotle's 
Ethics.  A  compend  of  Metaphysic,  more  advanced  Arithmetic 
and  Geometry. 

4th  year.     Besides  Physics,  Aristotle  de  animaK 

A  comparison  of  this  course  with  that  for  1581  shows 
a  very  considerable  widening  of  the  field  of  study  during  sixty 
years. 

^  Statistical  Account  of  Scotland,  vol.  xxi,  p.  26,  ed.  1799. 

-  David  .Munro  is  referred  to  as  "  Maister  of  the  Ilumanitie  "  in  a  document  of 
1637.     Muninuuta,  ill,  379—380. 

'•*  Glasgcnv  University  Old  and  New,  preface,  p.  .\x. 


122  SECOND    PERIOD.      GLASGOW    UNIVERSITY  [CH. 

In  1664  to  Arithmetic  and  Geometry,  Geography,  Astronomy, 
and  Anatomy  were  added.  The  session  lasted  for  ten  months, 
from  October  to  July.  October  was  mainly  devoted  to  ex- 
aminations and  revisal  of  previous  years'  studies.  Saturdays 
were  occupied  partly  with  revisal  of  the  week's  work,  and  partly 
with  public  exercises  in  oratory  and  declamation. 

In  1 64 1  Charles  I  gave  to  the  college  the  temporality  of  the 
Bishopric  of  Galloway,  and  the  career  of  the  university  was  up 
to  the  time  of  the  Restoration  on  the  whole  prosperous.  The 
ever- recurring  alternations  of  Episcopacy  and  Presbyterianism\ 
and  the  disturbing  elements  of  the  civil  war,  by  which  a  great 
part  of  the  17th  century  is  characterised,  were  doubtless  un- 
favourable to  university  success,  but  many  English  students,  the 
sons  of  dissenters,  who  were  refused  admission  to  Oxford  and 
Cambridge,  found  their  way  to  Scotland  for  education  during 
the  Commonwealth.  Cromwell  took  an  active  interest  in  the 
prosperity  of  the  Scottish  universities,  renewing  all  their  im- 
munities and  privileges,  and  confirming  former  foundations  and 
donations. 

The  re-establishment  of  Episcopacy  at  the  Restoration  had  a 
most  injurious  influence  on  the  college  by  depriving  it  of  such  a 
large  part  of  its  revenues  that  its  staff  of  eight  professors  was 
reduced  to  five-.  In  1660  the  college  was  deep  in  debt^  and  at  a 
visitation  ordered  by  parliament  in  1664  it  was  found  that  about 
^4000  Scots  yearly  was  needed  to  keep  it  from  decay  and  ruin. 
In  1672  the  King  with  consent  of  parliament  ratified  and  confirmed 
the  gift  made  to  the  university  of  the  sub-deanery  of  Glasgow 
with  the  annexed  kirks  of  Calder  and  Monkland.  At  this  time 
all  the  students  for  whom  there  was  room  had  chambers  in  the 
college  and  dined  at  the  common  table.  The  Regents  in  turn 
visited  the  chambers   before  six    in    the    morning,  and   in  the 

•^  We  may  give  as  an  example  of  these  obstacles  to  progress,  the  sequestration  in 
1660  of  the  salaries  of  Principal  Gillespie  and  three  ministers  for  refusing  to  sign  the 
"band  for  keeping  the  peace  and  disowning  the  Remonstrance."    Munimenta,  ii,  328. 

'  Statistical  Account  of  Scotland,  XXI,  p.  26,  ed.   1799. 

^  In  1655  bursars  of  philosophy  were  ordained  to  give  each  a  silver  spoon  for  the 
"  plenishing  of  the  house,"  and  bursars  of  theology  to  pay  at  entry  ten  marks  for 
"augmenting  the  public  library."  In  1687  the  Humanity  Chair  was  suppressed, 
because  the  "college  haill  revenues  are  super  expendil."  Aluniiucnta,  11,  323, 
325.   347- 


i 


Vlir]  DISCIPLINE    IN    THE   SEVENTEENTH    CENTURY  1 23 

evenin^r  before  nine,  to  see  that  none  of  the  students  were 
"  playinj^,  talking,  or  doin^^  worse  in  their  chambers,  or  wandering 
about  the  court,  or  going  from  chamber  to  chamber^" 

It  seems  tolerably  clear  that  the  visitations  which  followed 
the  various  ups  and  downs  in  ecclesiastical  predominance  between 
1560  and  1696  were  only  to  a  limited  extent  effective  in  practical 
results.  Many  of  the  recommendations  were  but  partially  and 
teinporarily  adopted,  and  not  a  few  were  entirely  disregarded. 
Regulations  as  to  graduation  were  not  strictly  observed.  In 
1 69 1  two  men  whose  education  had  been  wholly  private  wished 
to  enter  the  ministry  in  the  north  of  Ireland,  into  which  none 
were  admitted  who  were  not  graduates.  As  these  men  had 
passed  their  trials  for  the  ministry,  and  had  good  testimonials  to 
character,  the  Irish  authorities  requested  the  Faculty  to  confer  on 
them  the  degree  of  Master  of  Arts.  The  request  was  granted, 
though  the  men  professed  no  shred  of  university  culture.  Such 
serious  departures  from  rule  were  however  rare-.  Discipline 
seems  to  have  been  administered  with  commendable  strictness. 
We  find  that  a  student  was  expelled  for  absenting  himself  from 
the  college  for  ten  days.  On  another  occasion  the  magistrand 
(4th  year)  class  wishing  to  distinguish  themselves  from  the  other 
classes  took  to  wearing  knots  of  ribbons  on  their  hats.  When  the 
Principal  and  Regent  forbade  this,  it  was  found  that  the  students 
had  formed  a  combination  to  stand  by  each  other  and  resist 
authority.  The  result  was  a  riot  in  which  a  number  of  students 
in  the  other  classes  took  part,  some  of  whom  were  impri-soned  in 
the  Tolbooth.  When  brought  to  trial  all  humbly  confessed  their 
fault  and  promised  good  behaviour.  The  magistrand  class  were 
compelled,  each  with  his  own  hand,  to  remove  the  knot  of  ribbons 
from  his  hat  and  cancel  his  signature  to  the  combination  that 
had  been  formed.  Further  punishment  was  in  the  meantime 
withheld,  but  warning  was  given  that  any  similar  conduct  would 
be  followed  by  expulsion  I 

In  1693  it  was  found  necessary  to  check  unreasonable  expense 
at  laureation,  and  it  was  arranged  that  those  intending  to  take 
their  degrees  should  meet  and  choose  nine  of  their  number  to  be 

'   Glasgow  University  OIJ  anJ  New,  preface,  p.  xxi. 

-  Munimcnta,  n,  362.  •*  Miininunla,  \\,  365. 


124  SECOND    PERIOD.      GLASGOW   UNIVERSITY       [CH.  VIII 

stentmastcrs,  who  should  impose  a  stent  proportioned  to  the 
ascertained  ability  and  circumstances  of  each  student.  The 
amount  contributed  went  to  defray  the  charges  of  public  laurea- 
tion,  and  what  was  left  over  was  to  be  given  to  the  Regent  as  a 
honorarium  \ 

After  a  visitation  of  all  the  universities  in  1695  on  the  question 
of  a  printed  course  of  Philosophy  for  general  use,  the  Com- 
missioners answer  that  no  course  already  printed  is  suitable.  No 
complete  course  is  written  by  any  one  man,  and  the  different 
parts  are  written  by  popish  professors  who  cunningly  insinuate 
heretical  tenets.  In  some  the  Logicks  and  Metaphysicks  are 
barren,  the  Ethicks  erroneous  and  the  Physicks  too  prolix.  Moor 
is  grossly  Arminian,  Le  Clerc  is  merely  sceptical,  and  Descartes, 
Rohault  and  others  of  his  gang  are  rejected  for  specified  reasons. 
They  therefore  recommend  that  "  the  method  hitherto  keeped 
may  be  continued  till  our  printed  course  be  ready'-'." 

The  condition  of  the  college  during  the  quarter  of  a  century 
previous  to  the  Revolution  was  in  all  important  respects  un- 
changed. The  discontinued  professorships  were  then  replaced, 
and  in  the  following  century  fresh  additions  were  made.  And 
now  a  career  of  prosperity  commenced.  Thanks  to  Carstares 
who,  from  his  influence  with  William  III,  was  called  'Cardinal 
Carstares,'  an  annual  grant  of  ;^I200  was  in  1693  obtained  from 
the  King  for  equal  division  among  the  four  Scottish  Universities. 
We  have  satisfactory  evidence  of  progress  in  the  fact  that  at  the 
commencement  of  the  17th  century  the  number  of  students  was 
about  100,  and  a  century  later  400*. 

How  far  and  on  what  lines  this  success  was  continued  will  be 
dealt  with  in  our  third  period. 

^  Munimenta,  n,  370.  ^  Miinimenta,  11,  530 — i. 

^  Glasgow  University  Old  and  Neiv,  preface,  p.  xxiii. 


CHAPTER    IX 

SECOND  PERIOD  (1560  TO  1696).    ABERDEEN:  KING'S  COLLEGE 

We  have  seen  that  the  rcHgious  turmoil  which  was  violently 
at^itatin<^  the  south  of  Scotland  since  1546  left  Aberdeen  un- 
touched till  the  Reformation  in  1560.  The  successors  of  Rector 
Galloway  did  nothing  worthy  of  record,  and  there  is  no  evidence 
of  the  extent  to  which  effect  was  given  to  the  recommendations 
based  upon  his  visitation  in  1549.  In  1561  Principal  Anderson 
and  John  Leslie  were  summoned  to  appear  before  the  General 
Assembly  to  answer  charges  made  against  them  in  the  manage- 
ment of  the  universit)'.  Between  them  and  their  accusers — 
Knox  and  others — there  were  "very  sharp  and  hard  disputations" 
especially  about  transubstantiation  which  ended,  as  might  be 
expected,  in  neither  party  convincing  the  other,  the  only  result 
being  that  the  accused  were  ordered  to  remain  in  Edinburgh 
and  were  forbidden  to  preach.  No  further  action  was  taken  till 
1569  when  the  condition  of  King's  College  was  again  enquired 
into  by  a  Commission  of  which  the  Regent  Moray  was  a 
member.  On  Anderson  and  four  of  his  staff  refusing  to  sign  the 
Confession  of  Faith  they  were  deposed. 

The  charges  brought  against  Anderson  of  embezzlement  of 
college  revenues  were  probably  groundless,  and  were  at  an}-  rate 
never  brought  to  proof  during  the  eight  years  after  he  was 
deposed.  One  charge,  that  of  the  destruction  of  university 
charters,  was  certainly  false,  for  the  charters  are  still  in 
existence. 

The  eight  years  ending  with  Anderson's  deposition  were 
disastrous  to  the  university.    At  Queen  Mary's  visit  in  1562  it  is 


126         SECOND    PERIOD.      ABERDEEN:    KING'S   COLLEGE       [CH. 

described  as  "one  College  with  fifteen  or  sixteen  scholars'."  Nor 
does  it  seem  to  have  become  more  prosperous  under  Arbuthnot, 
a  man  of  many  excellent  qualities,  who  was  made  Principal  in 
1569,  and  held  that  office  till  1583.  The  transference,  twice 
proposed  to  him,  from  academic  to  ministerial  work  in  Aberdeen 
and  St  Andrews,  seems  to  suggest  that  he  lacked  the  qualities 
which  the  head  of  a  university  should  possess,  but  he  had 
great  difficulties  to  contend  with.  There  was  in  Aberdeen 
a  strong  party  violently  opposed  to  Protestantism,  and  the  new 
order  of  things.  He  felt  that  this  and  the  impoverished  con- 
dition of  the  university  made  his  retention  of  office  imperative 
in  the  general  interest.  It  is  pathetic  to  see  a  man  so  true  to 
himself,  so  universally  beloved,  and  with  qualities  which  in  less 
troublous  times  would  have  earned  success,  compelled  to  face 
difficulties  with  which  only  a  man  of  coarser  fibre  could  grapple. 
He  is  one  of  the  comparatively  small  number  of  public  men 
of  whom,  at  that  contentious  period,  allies  and  opponents  alike 
speak  with  respect  and  affection,  "  a  man  of  singular  gifts  of 
learning,  wisdom,  godliness  and  sweetness  of  nature."  Arch- 
bishop Spottiswoode,  an  ecclesiastical  antagonist,  speaking  of  him 
says  "  He  was  greatly  loved  of  all  men,  hated  of  none,  and  in 
such  account  for  his  moderation  with  the  chief  men  of  these 
parts,  that  without  his  advice  they  could  almost  do  nothing." 
It  is  scarcely  possible  that  a  man  who  could  be  thus  spoken  of, 
and  who  was  besides  the  fellow-worker  of  such  an  educationist 
as  Andrew  Melville  in  his  schemes  for  university  reform,  could 
have  been  an  inefficient  Principal.  However  this  may  be,  it  is 
not  far  from  the  truth  to  say  that  the  condition  of  King's  College 
was  in  1583  much  the  same  as  at  the  time  of  Galloway's  visita- 
tion, remaining  practically  unchanged  for  upwards  of  thirty 
years. 

We  have  seen  that  the  first  efforts  of  the  Reformers  were  in 
the  direction  of  changes  in  the  university  system.  A  sketch  of 
the  proposals  in  the  Books  of  Discipline  has  been  given  (supra 
pp.  106 — 7).  By  these  proposals,  largely  fruitless  though  they 
were,  the  character  of  the  universities  was  considerably  altered. 

1  By  scholars  it  is  almost  certain  that  we  must  understand  students  to  be  meant. 
It  does  not  appear  that  in  Aberdeen  scholars  meant  bursars. 


IX]  THOMAS    DEMPSTER    THE   WANDERING   SCHOLAR  127 

They  lost  to  a  large  extent  their  international  stamp  in  their 
efforts  to  adapt  themselves  to  modern  local  conditions.  Their 
aim,  hitherto  mainly  ecclesiastical,  became  largely  educational, 
but  not  to  the  exclusion  of  the  former.  Interchange  of 
students  between  the  Scottish  and  foreign  universities  was 
common  during  the  i6th  and  17th  centuries.  One  of  the  most 
noteworthy  instances  is  that  of  Thomas  Dempster  (i 579-1625) 
who  was  a  native  of  Auchterless,  and  whose  career,  as  given  in 
his  autobiography  and  in  the  Dictionary  of  National  Biography, 
is  a  strangely  mixed  one.  He  was  a  man  of  great  ability, 
vanity,  and,  if  the  Biographical  Dictionary  is  to  be  trusted,  of  as 
great  a  disregard  of  truth.  At  three  years  of  age  he  mastered 
the  whole  of  the  Alphabet  in  one  hour.  He  entered  Pembroke 
Hall,  Cambridge,  in  his  tenth  year,  and  was  connected,  either  as 
student  or  Professor,  with  at  least  ten  continental  universities — 
Paris,  Rome,  Douay,  Toulouse,  Nimes,  Lisieux,  de  Plessy, 
Beauvais,  Pisa  and  Bologna.  His  first  Chair  was  that  of  the 
Humanities  in  Paris  when  he  was  less  than  seventeen  years  of 
age.  He  was  Professor  of  Oratory  at  Nimes,  and  of  Civil  Law  in 
Pisa.  He  was  a  man  of  very  violent  temper  and  his  whole 
career  is  punctuated  by  a  succession  of  serious  quarrels.  The 
Dictionary  says  "he  hardly  ever  allowed  a  day  to  pass  without 
fighting  with  either  sword  or  fists,"  adding  however  that  in 
treating  of  his  career  "  it  is  impossible  to  distinguish  between 
fact  and  fiction."  He  was  a  man  of  exceptional  industry,  and 
was  knighted  by  Pope  Urban  VHI.  He  published  among  other 
learned  works  the  Historia  Ecclesiastica  Gentis  Scotorum  which 
is  the  best  known,  but  is  "chiefly  remarkable  for  its  extra- 
ordinary dishonesty'."  Even  in  view  of  his  undoubted  vanity 
and  mendacity,  he  stands  out  as  a  man  of  by  no  means  ordinary 
type. 

The  interchange  between  Scottish  and  foreign  universities 
fell  off  considerably  for  some  time,  but  revived  again  from 
increased  facilities  in  travelling,  and  continued  till  the  beginning 
of  the  19th  century.     Among  the  last  was  William  Laurence 

'  Dictionary  of  National  Biography.  The  description  of  Dempster  given  by  the 
D.N.B.  is  largely  taken  from  Janus  Nicius  Erythraeus  as  quoted  in  Ir\ing's  edition  of 
the  Historia  Ecclesiastica,  p.  iv. 


128  SECOND    PERIOD.      ABERDEEN:    KING'S    COLLEGE       [CH. 

Brown,  son  of  the  English  Church  minister  in  Utrecht,  who 
became  Professor  of  Moral  Philosophy,  Church  History,  and  the 
Law  of  Nature  in  that  University.  He  was  subsequently  ap- 
pointed to  the  Chair  of  Divinity  in  Marischal  College,  Aberdeen, 
and  in  1796  became  its  Principal,  and  held  office  till  1830. 

Of  educational  reformers  after  Knox  Andrew  Melville  is 
the  most  prominent.  Returning  from  his  studies  in  Paris  in 
full  sympathy  with  the  opinions  of  Ramus  who  taught  that 
Aristotle  was  not  infallible,  he  was  appointed  in  1574  Principal 
of  Glasgow  University,  which  he  found  in  a  state  of  utter 
confusion  and  poorly  equipped  with  teachers.  With  character- 
istic energy  he  drew  up  a  scheme  in  which  Greek  was  introduced, 
and  wider  study  of  the  Latin  classics  and  Mathematics  formed 
a  part.  The  result  was  so  entirely  satisfactory  as  to  warrant 
the  opinion  in  his  nephew's  Diary  that  "  Scotland  receavit  never 
a  greater  benefit  at  the  hands  of  God  nor  this  man."  In  the 
following  year  we  learn  from  the  same  Diary^  that  his  uncle  and 
Arbuthnot  had  a  conference  about  the  studies  and  management 
of  Glasgow  and  Aberdeen.  From  this  conference  was  produced 
the  Erectio  Regia  for  Glasgow  (p.  120),  and  from  a  Commission 
appointed  in  1579  a  new  scheme  for  St  Andrews  (p.  no). 

The  question  of  a  Nova  Fundatio  for  Aberdeen  is  one  of 
great  complexity  and  conflicting  testimony.  For  its  full  dis- 
cussion, which  quite  exceeds  our  limits,  reference  must  be  made 
to  Mr  P.  J.  Anderson's  Officers  and  Graduates  of  King's 
College-.  Mr  Anderson  says  "  it  is  not  now  possible  to  give 
a  complete  account  of  the  origin  of  the  Foundation,  or  to 
reconcile  the  contradictory  statements  made  as  to  the  extent 
to  which  its  provisions  were  enforced."  It  may  be  safely  as- 
sumed that  his  attempt  at  reconciliation  is  the  best  possible. 
Mr  Rait  also  admits  that  it  is  almost  hopeless  to  attempt  a 
satisfactory  explanation  I 

A  very  incomplete  summary  of  what  was  done  in  connection 
with  it  may  not  be  out  of  place. 

Parliament  passed  an  act  in  1 578  "  anent  the  visitation  of 
the    Universities   and   Colleges."     Commissioners   were  sent   to 

1  Melville's  Diary,  p.  53,  ed.  1842.  ^  New  Spalditt}^  Chih,  p.  324. 

'  Rail's  Universilies  of  Aberdeen,  pp.  108 — 117. 


IX]  THE   NOVA    FUNDATIO  OF    KING'S   COLLEGE  1 29 

the  three  universities  with   full   powers  (p.    no).      In   tlie  fol- 
lowing year  the  St  Andrews  Commissioners  sent  in  their  pro- 
posals.    There  is  no  record  that  the  Aberdeen  Commissioners 
did  so.     In  the  parliament  of    1581    mention   is   made  of  the 
"  Reformation  of  the  College  of  Aberdeen  "  as  being  ready  for 
confirmation.     Nothing   more  is   known  of  the  document  thus 
designated.     During  the   next  three  years,  the  attempts  made 
to   have    the  Nova  Fundatio   formally  established  were   either 
opposed    or    evaded,    and    for    another    thirteen    years    nothing 
further  was  done.     In  1593  Earl  Marischal,  despairing  of  seeing 
it  introduced  into  King's  College,  founded  the  University  which 
bears  his  name.    In  1597  the  Nova  Fundatio  was  sanctioned  sub- 
ject to  revision  by  certain  Commissioners.     What  and  whether 
any  emendations  were  made  during  revision  is  not  known.     The 
original  document  is  lost,  but  some  copies  of  it  are  still  in  existence. 
Let  us  suppose  that  we  have  a  copy  of  a  duly  ratified  original 
document.       It    bears    that    the    King    is    anxious   to    give   to 
Aberdeen  a  constitution  like  that  of  St  Andrews  and  Glasgow. 
It    confirms    previous   grants    and    specifies    new   endowments. 
The  number  of  members  of  the  college,  the  mode  of  election, 
the  duties  and  salary  of  the  Principal   are  all   detailed.     The 
most  important  changes  are  that  each  Regent  is  to  have  only 
one  department   instead  of  conducting  one  class  through  the 
whole  curriculum,  and  that  the  offices  of  Canonist,  Civilist,  and 
Mediciner  are  to  be  abolished.     It  contains  a  list  of  the  Arts 
subjects,  and    specifies  their   distribution   among   the  teaching 
staff.     Aristotle  is  not  excluded,  but  it  is  only  a  selection  of  his 
Organon,  Ethics,  and  Politics  that  is  included  in  the  list. 

There  are  other  details  but  these  may  suffice. 

In  the  relegation  of  Aristotle  to  a  subordinate  position,  and 
the  assignation  of  professorial  duties  to  the  Regents  we  see  the 
hand  of  Melville.  In  the  abolition  of  Law  and  Medicine  we  see, 
as  events  proved,  a  source  of  dissension  and  a  line  of  cleavage 
of  university  authorities  into  two  factors — on  one  side  the 
supporters,  on  the  other  the  opponents  of  the  new  foundation. 
Nor  is  this  to  be  wondered  at.  It  seems  unaccountable  that 
for  over  twenty  years  neither  medicine  nor  civil  law  was 
taught  in   the  university.      It  is  beyond  doubt  that  here,  as  in 

K.  E.  9 


I30         SECOND   PERIOD.      ABERDEEN  :    KING'S   COLLEGE       [CH. 

St  Andrews,  the  A^ova  Ftmdatio  was  to  some  extent  observed. 
While  there  is  conflicting  evidence  about  the  extent  to  which 
the  regulations  on  '  regenting '  were  carried  out,  it  is  tolerably 
clear  that  on  the  whole  the  authorities  did  not  take  kindly  to 
them.  They  were  alternately  adopted  and  abandoned  at  com- 
paratively short  intervals  on  personal,  political,  or  ecclesiastical 
grounds,according  as  one  party  or  another  had  greater  influence  on 
the  vacillating  moods  of  the  reigning  monarchs.  Bishop  Patrick 
Forbes  in  1619  restored  the  old  foundation.  Nine  years  after- 
wards a  professoriate  was  established,  and  in  thirteen  years 
a  return  was  made  to  the  old  foundation.  "If,"  says  Rait, 
"the  reason  for  instituting  a  professoriate  in  1628  is  doubtful, 
the  cause  of  its  abandonment  in  1641  is  a  complete  mystery." 

It  seems  impossible  to  state  with  precision  when  and  for 
how  long  the  Nova  Fundatio  was  fully  or  even  nominally  in 
force.  Between  1592  and  1638  several  Acts  of  Parliament  were 
passed  confirming  the  old  foundation.  In  1638,  the  Presbyterians 
being  in  power,  an  attempt  was  made  to  restore  the  new  founda- 
tion. A  commission  was  appointed  with  the  Marquis  of  Huntly 
as  president.  The  majority  of  the  college  officials  including  the 
Rector  and  Principal  were  in  favour  of  the  proposal  ;  the 
Professors  of  Law  and  Medicine,  whose  occupations  were  in 
danger  of  being  extinguished,  were  opposed  to  it.  The  com- 
missioners had  been  ordered  by  Charles  to  confirm  the  old 
foundation  and  they  did  so^ 

Gordon  in  his  Scots  affairs  says  that  the  Nova  Fundatio 
was  in  1592  prepared  by  Principal  Rait  and  presented  to 
James  VI,  "and  it  went  near  to  be  ratified  by  Parliament,  had 
it  not  been  opposed  by  Secretary  Elphinstone,"  and  that  the 
document  fell  into  the  hands  of  Bishop  Patrick  Forbes,  who 
instead  of  setting  it  on  foot  as  requested  threw  it  into  the  fire. 
This  may  or  may  not  be  true.  There  is  certainly  no  clear  proof 
that  the  Nova  Fundatio  was  ever  sanctioned  by  Act  of  Parlia- 
ment. It  is  true  that  the  party,  who  were  anxious  that  it  should 
be  held  as  ratified,  offered  to  produce  witnesses  who  had  seen 
and  read  the  document.  It  does  not  appear  that  witnesses  were 
produced.     There  is  no  evidence  that  it  was  really  placed  in 

^  Rail's  Universities  of  Aberdeen,   p.  137. 


IX]         lilSIIOP   FORBES'S   VISITATION    OF   THE   COLLEGES         131 

the  statute  book.  That  it  expressed  the  wishes  of  the  Protestant 
Reformers  is  beyond  question.  It  had  received  the  approval 
of  the  General  Assembly  in  1583  and  thence  acquired  such 
authority  as  caused  it  to  be  intermittently  acted  upon  for  nearly 
a  hundred  years. 

In  the  early  years  of  the  17th  century  tiiere  were  few 
entrants,  the  number  ranging  from  twelve  to  thirty-eight.  Few 
of  the  officials  were  men  of  special  note,  but  in  16 18  we  find  the 
name  of  one  who  was  not  only  a  great  benefactor  of  the  univer- 
sity, but  universally  beloved  and  revered  alike  by  allies  and 
opponents,  Bishop  Patrick  Forbes.  Melville  in  his  diary  speaks 
of  him  as  the  "guid,  godly,  and  kind  Patrick  Forbes."  He  was 
asked  in  1619  by  King  James  to  examine  into  the  condition  of 
King's  and  Marischal  Colleges.  At  Marischal  College  the  gates 
were  shut  against  him  and  the  porter  speaking  from  a  window 
said  that  he  was  locked  in  and  the  Rector  had  taken  away  the 
key.  The  Rector  was  arrested,  but  he  declined  to  "  deluyer 
ony  keyis  or  open  ony  yettis."  A  few  days  after  application 
was  made  to  Earl  Marischal,  but  the  refusal  was  repeated  ^ 
David  Rait  was  then  Principal  of  King's  College.  Its  condition 
was  far  from  satisfactory  in  respect  of  both  teaching  and  finance. 
Rait  had  taught  practically  nothing,  and  had  so  mismanaged 
the  revenues  that  there  was  a  deficiency  of  three  thousand 
pounds.  Graduation  fees  had  been  "  invertit  to  privat  use," 
buildings  were  dilapidated  and  had  become  ruinous,  the  churches 
which  were  connected  with  the  university  had  no  ministers,  and 
there  was  "  lamentable  hethcnisme  and  sic  lowsnes  as  is  horrible 
to  record."  Instead  of  proceeding  to  a  sentence  against  him 
the  Commissioners  gave  him  four  years  to  repair  the  dilapida- 
tions and  clear  off  the  debt.  Whether  he  kept  his  promise  is 
not  recorded,  but  it  is  probable  that  he  to  some  extent  satisfied 
the  Commissioners,  as  he  retained  the  Principalship  till  his 
death.  The  Commissioners  restored  the  old  foundation,  and 
elected  a  canonist,  a  civilist,  a  mediciner,  and  a  grammarian. 

During  thirty  years  of  Episcopalian  ascendancy  at  the 
beginning  of  the  17th  century  the  university  has,  in  respect 
of    classical    scholarship    and    general    culture,   a .  very    good 

^  Bulloch's  History  of  AberdieH  University,  p.  100. 

9—2 


132  SECOND    PERIOD.      ABERDEEN:    KING'S   COLLEGE       [CH. 

record,  and  can  point  to  some  famous  names — the  brothers 
Johnstons,  Wedderburns,  Leeches  and  Reids.  "  This  was,"  says 
Bulloch,  "  indeed  the  Augustan  Age  of  the  University,  and  if 
there  was  a  dash  of  pedantry  about  it,  that,  as  Cosmo  Innes  has 
remarked,  was  the  misfortune  of  the  age,  rather  than  the  fault  of 
Aberdeen^" 

It  was  to  Bishop  Forbes  that  the  university  owed  the 
establishment  in  1620  of  a  theological  chair  to  which  his  son 
John  was  appointed.  The  money  (10,000  marks)  which  he 
collected  for  this  purpose  was  invested  in  lands  in  the  parish  of 
Kinnellar,  which  at  the  present  day  bring  to  the  college  ;^400  a 
year.  After  his  death  in  1635  election  to  the  chair— now  called 
a  chair  of  Systematic  Theology— was  settled  by  competition. 
This  mode  of  appointment,  which  is  still  adhered  to,  is  (outside 
China)  perhaps  unique.  The  composition  of  the  examining  body, 
and  the  subjects  of  examination,  Latin,  Greek,  Hebrew,  History, 
Philosophy  and  religious  controversies,  are  practically  the  same 
as  in  1642. 

In  1628  the  Bishop,  as  Chancellor,  made  another  visitation  of 
the  college,  which  seems  to  have  been  followed  by  only  one 
recorded  enactment.  It  was  found  necessary  to  impose  a  check 
on  the  hospitable  intentions  of  students  towards  their  professors 
at  graduation  seasons,  because  parents  complained  of  the  expense 
of  banquets  which  had  become  customary.  It  was  accordingly 
enacted  that  they  must  cease,  "except  it  sail  please  the  saidis 
studcntis  so  to  be  graduat  [at]  the  tyme  of  their  examination 
to  bestow  upoun  the  saidis  maisteris  and  examinatouris  ane 
drinke  upoun  fute  for  recreation  allanerlie,  without  anie  forder 
addition."  The  expense  thus  saved  was  appropriated  by  the 
college,  every  graduand  being  held  bound  to  pay  four  pounds 
Scots  for  books  to  the  library.  There  was  probably  behind 
this  some  general  university  practice.  A  graduate  of  Upsala 
at  the  present  day  incurs  in  this  way  considerable  expense. 

At  this  time  the  antagonism  between  Episcopacy  and 
Covenanting  Presbytery  was  more  pronounced  than  at  any 
former  period.  Bishop  Forbes  took  the  side  of  the  anti-Presby- 
terian party.     His  strong  personality  had  gathered  around  him, 

'  }i\x\\ocW^  I/islory  of  Aberdeen  University,  y.  115. 


IX]  RELIGIOUS   CONTROVERSIES    UNDER   CHARLES    I  1 33 

among  others,  the  brilhant  coterie  of  scholars  and  theologians 
known  as  the  six  Aberdeen  Doctors,  four  of  whom  belonged  to 
King's  College,  viz.  Principal  Leslie,  John  Forbes  the  Bishop's 
son,  Alexander  Scroggie,  and  Alexander  Ross,  both  subsequently 
Rectors  of  King's  College.  The  two  belonging  to  Marischal 
College  were  Barron,  Professor  of  Divinity,  and  Sibbald  '  ane 
eloquent  and  painefull  preacher '  and  Professor  of  Natural 
Philosoph}'. 

Bishop  Forbes  and  Principal  Rait  were  succeeded  by  Bishop 
Bellendcn  and  William  Leslie  as  Chancellor  and  Principal 
respectively.  Both  were  deposed  in  1639  on  their  refusal  to  sign 
the  Covenant, 

Between  the  visitations  in  1628  and  1638  the  life  of  the 
College  seems  to  have  been  uneventful  and  at  any  rate  not  pro- 
gressive. A  few  unimportant  changes  were  made,  but  even 
these  were  carried  out  with  difficulty,  owing  to  the  political 
turmoil  of  the  time.  When  the  Presbyterian  party  came  into 
power  in  1638,  the  Chancellor  and  Principal  were,  as  already 
mentioned,  deposed  and  with  them  a  regent  "  who  was  fled  of 
set  purpose"  from  the  meeting,  but  the  other  officials  subscribed 
the  Covenant.  Teaching  was  discontinued  for  a  short  time  as 
the  students  had  fled  at  the  approach  of  Montrose  with  his 
army.  Dr  John  Forbes,  Professor  of  Theology,  was  deposed  in 
1641.  He  had  appeared  before  the  Assembly  which  met  in 
Greyfriars  Church,  Aberdeen,  in  1640,  and  pleased  them  so  well 
by  his  'ingenuitie'  that,  rather  than  depose  him  at  once,  they  had 
"given  him  yet  tyme  for  advysement."  Still  refusing  to  sign  the 
Covenant  he  was  deposed,  "  to  the  gryte  greif  of  the  youth  and 
young  students  of  theologie." 

About  this  time  Aberdeen  suffered  severely  from  the  constant 
raids  of  Montrose  and  the  Covenanters,  and  at  last  in  1640  the 
magistrates  signed  the  Covenant,  and  the  town  was  held  by  a 
covenanting  regiment  for  nearly  two  years. 

In  1641  parliament  passed  an  act  for  the  union  of  King's 
and  Marischal  Colleges  in  a  joint  university  to  be  called  in  all 
time  coming  King  Charles'  University.  F'or  twenty  years  the 
union  was  merely  nominal.  The  presence  of  the  Principals  of 
both  Colleges  at  meetings  in  1650  is  evidence  of  intercourse  of 


134         SECOND    PERIOD.      ABERDEEN:    KING'S   COLLEGE       [CH. 

some  kind,  but  it  does  not  appear  that  the  administration  of  the 
two  institutions  was  in  any  way  affected  by  this  statutory  but 
nominal  union.  Mutual  jealousy  prevented  the  union  from  being 
hearty.  By  this  act  it  was  proposed  that  the  revenues  of  the  see 
of  Aberdeen  should  be  divided  between  the  colleges  in  the  propor- 
tion of  two  to  King's  and  one  to  Marischal  College.  The 
Episcopal  residence  was  given  to  the  Principal  of  King's  to  be 
used  as  a  manse. 

A  meeting  was  held  in  Edinburgh  in  1647  to  which  each 
university  sent  a  representative  to  arrange  for  uniformity  of 
doctrine  and  government  in  all  the  Universities.  A  summary 
of  the  leading  features  of  the  courses  in  King's  College  must 
suffice. 

To  the  first  class  Greek,  covering  among  other  books  orations 
of  Isocrates  and  Demosthenes  and  a  book  of  Homer. 

To  the  second,  the  dialectics  of  Ramus,  the  rhetoric  of  Vossius, 
Aristotle's  categories  and  analytics,  and  some  arithmetic. 

To  the  third,  logic,  ethics,  physics  and  geometry. 

To  the  fourth,  mainly  astronomical  subjects,  and  geography. 

The  courses  of  the  other  universities  were  similar,  with  slight 
differences,  such  as  Hebrew  to  the  first  class  in  St  Andrews;  in 
Edinburgh  and  St  Andrev^'s  Anatomy  was  taught.  The  session 
was  to  last  from  October  to  July. 

In  165 1  Cromwell  paid  a  visit  to  King's  College,  and 
dismissed  Guild  and  Middleton,  Principal  and  Vice-Principal, 
and  put  in  their  places  Row  and  Rule.  Row  was  a  man  of 
much  the  same  masterful  type  as  Cromwell,  and  such  a  man  was 
required.  Since  the  execution  of  Huntly  in  1649  the  chancellor- 
ship had  remained  vacant.  The  college  had  not  been  visited  by 
order  of  parliament,  Church,  or  Rector.  Row  had  all  power  and 
he  made  a  full  use  of  it.  Though  a  strict  disciplinarian  he 
recognised  the  necessity  of  recreative  games.  Bowls,  golf,  foot- 
ball, and  archery  were  practised,  and  he  even  fitted  up  a  billiard 
room  in  Cromwell's  Tower,  but  all  under  due  supervision  as  to 
time  and  place. 

This  tower  is  a  square  building  erected  in  1658  in  the 
North-East  corner  of  the  quadrangle  at  Row's  suggestion,  and 
largely  by  funds  provided  by  Cromwell's  officers.  General  Monk 


IX]  CURRICULUM    OF   THE    PURITAN    PERIOD  1 35 

himself  being  a  liberal  contributor.  It  is  probable  that  this 
extension  of  the  fabric  in  King's  College  set  an  example  which 
was  followed  by  the  authorities  of  Marischal  College,  who  in  the 
course  of  the  next  year  erected  a  new  school,  to  which  Oxford  and 
Cambridge,  and  the  Episcopalian  clergy  furnished  handsome 
contributions. 

When  brother  teachers  from  Marischal  College  paid  a  visit  to 
King's  they  were  supplied  with  "wyne,  tobacco,  and  pyps."  As 
Row  kept  elaborate  accounts  of  expenditure,  it  is  probable  that 
indulgence  in  these  luxuries  was  kept  within  reasonable  bounds. 
Notwithstanding  the  vigour  and  care  which  characterised  his 
administration  he  did  not  satisfy  the  Reformers.  Cromwell's 
policy  was  set  aside  at  the  Restoration.  The  union  of  the 
colleges  was  rescinded,  and  Row  was  dismissed  from  the 
principalship  in  1661. 

Living  in  college  was  not  popular  with  the  students,  but 
those  who  lived  outside  were  subject  to  the  same  discipline  as 
the  others,  and  returned  to  supper  and  studied  till  ten.  They 
had  to  attend  religious  services  and  declare  themselves  Protes- 
tants. A  hurried  summary  of  the  way  in  which  the  day  was  spent 
is  all  for  which  space  can  be  found.  From  six  o'clock  in  summer 
or  half-past  six  in  winter  till  ten  at  night  the  student  was  under 
constant  surveillance,  except  for  a  short  recreative  interval  three 
times  a  week.  After  breakfast  morning  prayers  at  six,  classes 
till  ten,  roll  call  and  Scripture  reading  till  eleven,  revision  and 
repetition  of  lessons  till  twelve,  dinner  \  secular  and  Scripture 
reading  till  two,  lectures  on  theological  subjects  till  five,  classes 
from  five  till  six,  evening  prayers  and  Scripture  reading  till  supper 
at  eight,  after  supper  singing  psalms  till  nine,  study  till  ten,  filled 
up  the  day. 

During  the  twelve  years  of  his  principalship  Row  adhered  to 
the  system  of  regenting.'  By  this  time,  Episcopacy  being  again 
in  the  ascendant,  there  were  depositions  and  fresh  appointments. 
Though  parliament  had  a  large  share  in  guiding  academic  affairs, 
these  constantly  recurring  ecclesiastical  changes  were  not  favour- 

'  Their  manners  at  dinner  were  not  above  suspicion.  They  are  warned  not  to 
throw  bones  at  each  other,  but  to  place  them  on  their  plates  or  on  the  floor. 
Rait,  p.  161. 


136         SECOND    PERIOD.      ABERDEEN:    KING'S   COLLEGE       [CH. 

able  to  steady  progress  or  strict  discipline.  By  an  edict  of  the 
Privy  Council  the  two  Colleges  were  visited  in  1669,  when  it  was 
found  that  there  was  great  laxity  in  respect  of  graduation.  De- 
crees were  being  conferred  privately  by  Regents,  and  without  the 
responsibility  of  the  Chancellor.  The  commission  forbade  degrees 
to  be  conferred  except  with  the  consent  of  the  leading  authorities 
in  each  College.  They  also  forbade  the  admission  of  students  for 
graduation  passing  from  one  college  to  another  without  sufficient 
testimonials  from  the  college  whence  they  came.  About  the 
same  time  the  Privy  Council  thought  it  necessary,  in  the  interest 
of  the  university,  to  forbid  private  tutors  to  lecture  on  university 
subjects.  This  prohibition  was  addressed  to  all  the  five  Univer- 
sities. 

As  already  mentioned  there  was  no  love  lost  between  the 
two  colleges,  but  at  this  time  the  rivalry  became  accentuated. 
Recourse  was  had  to  undignified  touting  for  students  by  the 
Regents  of  both  institutions  "intyseing  the  scholleres  of  the  one 
College  to  the  other."  Commission  aftercommissionwasappointed 
to  keep  the  jealousy  within  bounds.  It  became  at  last  necessary 
to  ordain  that  should  Professor  A  of  one  college  admit  to  his 
class  a  student  from  Professor  B  of  the  other  college,  Professor  A 
was  bound  to  hand  over  to  Professor  B  the  student's  fees. 

This  petty  rivalry  however  was  not  an  unmixed  evil.  Each 
College  was  put  upon  its  mettle,  Marischal  College  with  the 
ardour  of  youth  leading  the  way  by  the  establishment  of  fresh 
chairs  in  Mathematics,  Divinity,  and  Hebrew,  King's  College 
following  suit  somewhat  tardily.  The  former  had  its  professor  of 
Hebrew  in  1642,  the  latter  its  chair  of  Oriental  languages  in 
1673.  This  was  an  event  of  great  importance.  Though  Hebrew 
had  been  taught  in  all  the  universities  since  the  Reformation,  it 
had  always  in  Aberdeen  been  conjoined  with  some  other 
subject,  and  the  instruction  was  wanting  in  thoroughness. 

When  Presbytery  was  re-established  in  1690  a  Parliamentary 
Commission  visited  the  universities.  It  was  ordained  that 
all  Regents  except  "Principals,  Professors  of  Divinity  and  other 
Professors"    should    be   appointed   by  examination \     The   ex- 

^  It  may  be  inferred  from  this  tliat  in  some  of  the  universities  '  regenting '  in  the 
old  sense  had  been  given  up,  and  that  Regents  were  on  a  lower  level  than  Trofessors. 


IX]         RIVALRY   OF   THK    TWO   AI'.ERDEEN    UNIVERSITIES        1 37 

amination  seems  to  have  been  conducted  in  much  the  same  way 
as  the  final  graduation  disputation.  Reforms  of  greater  or 
less  importance  were  made  in  all  the  universities,  but  security 
for  the  loyalty  of  the  candidates  and  their  subscription  to  the 
Confession  of  Faith  were  the  main  objects  of  the  Commissioners. 
Among  other  reforms  they  shortened  the  session  to  eight 
months,  and  ordained  that  students  should  wear  red  gowns. 
This  latter  ordinance  was  obeyed  everywhere  but  in  Edinburgh. 
Before  their  labours  were  ended  the  Commissioners  revived 
the  consideration  of  a  scheme  which  had  been  proposed  in  1647. 
The  proposal  was  to  divide  the  philosophical  subjects  among  the 
four  universities — Metaphysics  to  St  Andrews,  Logic  to  Glasgow, 
Ethics  and  Mathematics  to  Aberdeen,  and  Physics  to  Edinburgh. 
This  'cursus  philosophicus'  met  with  little  favour  and  dropped 
out  of  sight.  Nevertheless  there  was  much  sense  in  the  scheme. 
The  Scottish  Universities  cannot  afford  such  a  staff  as  to  make 
them  copies  of  Oxford  and  Cambridge  in  spite  of  all  the  efforts 
of  the  last  twenty  years.  But  in  the  seventeenth  century  the 
difficulties  of  travelling  made  the  scheme  impracticable.  The 
vexed  question  of  the  Nova  Fundatio  was  again  in  evidence 
before  a  Commission  in  Aberdeen  in  1696  but  no  satisfactory 
conclusion  was  reached. 


CHAPTER    X 

SECOND    PERIOD  (1560  TO  1696)      MARISCHAL  COLLEGE 

As  already  mentioned  the  difficulty  and  delay  in  establishing 
the  Nova  Fitndatio  in  King's  College  led  to  the  founding  of 
Marischal  College  in  i  593.  Its  endowment  consisted  of  all  the 
property  formerly  belonging  to  the  Grey,  Black,  and  White 
Friars,  together  with  lands  of  the  Abbey  of  Deer  and  of  the 
Knights  Templar  in  Kincardine.  The  rules  for  management 
much  resemble  those  for  the  new  foundations  of  the  three  old 
universities,  and  the  charter  granted  by  James  to  Edinburgh. 
The  staff  was  to  consist  of  a  Principal,  three  Regents,  six  bursars, 
a  steward  and  cook.  The  Principal  had  professorial  duties,  the 
teaching  of  Scripture,  Hebrew,  Syriac,  Physiology ^  Anatomy, 
Geography,  and  History.  The  subjects  to  be  taught  by  the 
Regents  are  specified;  but  present  no  features  calling  for 
detailed  statement.  We  find  however  what  was  to  be  expected 
from  the  founder's  favour  for  the  Nova  Fiaidatio,  that  the 
teachers  are  not  to  "shift  about  to  new  professorships"  so  that 
"the  youths  who  ascend  step  by  step  may  have  a  teacher  worthy 
of  their  studies  and  talents."  In  this  we  see  both  the  hand  of 
Melville  and  the  broader  views  of  the  Earl  Marischal  himself. 
This  continued  till  1642,  when  for  no  assigned  reason  'regenting' 
was  restored,  as  it  had  been  the  year  before  in  King's  College. 
Marischal  College  was  to  be  residential  for  all  except  students 
(probably  the  majority)  who  were  not  bursars.  For  other  students 
residence  was  optional,  but  they  were  subject  to  the  same  strict 

*  Physiology  300  years  ago  probably  meant  Zoology,  or  Nature  Knowledge,  and 
what  is  now  called  Physics. 


CH.  X]  ORGANISATION    OF    MARISCHAL   COLLEGE  1 39 

discipline  on  Sundays  and  week-days,  at  play  and  meal  times,  as 
the  other  members.  The  bursars  had  a  distinctive  dress  and  did 
certain  menial  services  such  as  in  old  days  were  performed  by 
sizars  in  Oxford  and  Cambridi,^e.  The  curriculum  covered  four 
years  and  was  on  the  whole  post-Reformation  in  character,  but 
Aristotle's  Ethics  still  had  a  place.  Latin  or  Greek  was  the 
language  to  be  used,  and  the  wearing  of  arms  of  any  kind  was 
forbidden.  Examinations  were  to  be  held  at  entrance,  graduation, 
and  the  beginning  of  each  year.  The  Chancellor,  Rector,  and 
Dean  of  Faculty  were  to  inspect  the  college  in  October,  February, 
and  June,  and  see  that  the  members  were  free  from  "the  darkness 
of  Popery."  Teachers  were  to  be  nominated  by  the  Founder  or 
his  heirs,  but  to  be  examined  by  the  Chancellor,  Rector,  Dean 
of  Faculty,  Principal  of  King's  College  and  certain  ministers. 
The  Rector  was  to  be  elected  by  the  '  nations '  through  their 
Procurators.  In  Marischal  College  the  'nations'  were  Marenses, 
Buchanenses,  Moravienses  and  Angusiani,  representing  the 
inhabitants  of  Mar,  Buchan,  and  Moray  respectively,  and  the 
Angusiani  the  inhabitants  of  the  South  and  foreigners.  The 
steward  was  to  give  a  weekly  account  of  his  payments.  The 
higher  officials  might  be  married,  but  no  wife,  daughter  or  maid- 
servant was  allowed  to  live  in  the  College.  Regents  on  being 
married  were  obliged  to  resign  their  office.  The  charter  was 
sanctioned  by  the  General  Assembly  in  April  1593  and  in  July 
was  ratified  by  parliament.  Till  near  the  middle  of  the  17th 
century  the  monastery  of  Greyfriars  granted  by  the  Town 
Council  was  with  slight  adaptations  the  only  building  used  for 
academic  purposes. 

By  the  Earl's  transferring  to  his  College  his  own  motto 
"  Thay  haif  said.  Quhat  say  thay  ?  Lat  thame  say,"  we  have 
an  indication  of  his  impatience  with  the  delay  of  the  King's 
College  authorities  in  accepting  the  new  foundation. 

A  year  before  the  foundation  of  Marischal  College  Sir 
Alexander  Eraser,  probably  by  way  of  protest  against  the 
obstinacy  of  King's  College  in  refusing  to  adopt  the  New 
Foundation,  erected  in  Faithlie — the  old  name  of  Fraserburgh — a 
university  to  which  James  gave  a  grant  of  lands  and  the  powers 
and    privileges    usually  conferred  on    universities.      P'ive    years 


140  SECOND    PERIOD.      MARISCHAL   COLLEGE  [CH. 

later  parliament  made  a  further  grant  of  church  lands  ^  In 
1605  it  ceased  to  exist,  but  the  building  was  probably  used  in 
1647,  when  owing  to  the  plague  in  Aberdeen  King's  College  was 
temporarily  transferred  to  Fraserburgh  and  Marischal  College  to 
Peterhead-. 

During  the  first  twenty  years  of  its  existence  Marischal 
College  received  contributions  for  bursaries  and  other  college 
purposes  from  private  persons,  the  most  important  of  which  was 
a  bequest  by  Dr  Liddell  of  lands  from  which  were  furnished 
bursaries,  classical  prizes,  and  the  endowment  of  a  chair  of 
Mathematics. 

Fresh  bursaries  came  in  during  the  next  twelve  years,  and  a 
chair  of  Divinity  was  founded,  the  first  lecturer  being  William 
Forbes,  one  of  the  '  Aberdeen  doctors.'  On  being  urgently 
pressed  he  accepted  the  Principalship  also,  but  after  a  year's 
experience  of  the  combined  duties  he  demitted  office,  accepted 
ministerial  duty  in  Edinburgh  and  Aberdeen,  and  was  in  1633 
elected  first  Bishop  of  Edinburgh. 

Forbes  was  a  keen  adherent  of  Episcopacy,  and  therefore 
variously  estimated  according  as  his  critics  were  Presbyterian  or 
Episcopal.  Bishop  Burnet  calls  him  "  a  grave  and  eminent 
divine,"  while  Row  in  his  History  speaks  of  him  thus,  "  If  Mr 
Forbes  had  left  in  legacy  a  confession  of  his  faith,  you  would 
have  seen  a  strange  and  miscellaneous  farrago  and  hotch-potch 
of  Popery,  Arminianism,  Lutheranism,  and  what  not^" 

Between  the  appointment  of  Principal  Dun  in  1621  as  a 
successor  to  William  Forbes  and  1639  there  are  few  incidents  of 
educational  interest.  Several  valuable  bursaries  were  instituted. 
There  were  bequests  of  mathematical  instruments  and  books, 
and  the  gift  of  a  house  for  dormitories  by  the  Town  Council.  In 
1639  fire  broke  out  at  night  and  destroyed  a  considerable  part 
of  the  college  adjacent  to  Thomas  Reid's  library,  which  Gordon 
in  his  Scots  Ajfairs  says  was  "the  best  library  that  ever  the 
north  parts  of  Scotland  saw."     The  fire  was  extinguished  by  the 

^  Act  of  Parliament,  1597,  vol.  iv.  pp.  147-8. 

^  It  was  only  in  comparatively  recent  times  that  the  buildings  in  Fraserburgh 
disappeared,  and  the  street  in  which  they  stood  is  still  called  College  Bounds.  Pratt's 
Buchan,  4th  ed.,  pp.  -271,  272. 

"*  Rait's  Ilist.  of  Univ.  of  Aberdeen,  p.  271. 


X]         UNDER    Tin-:    STUARTS   AND    THE   rOMMONWEAI.TH       141 

help  of  the  crew  of  a  vessel  in  the  harbour.     The  College  was 
rebuilt  three  years  afterwards. 

In  1640  all  the  Regents  signed  the  Covenant  except  one,  who, 
when  questioned  about  his  refusal,  declared  plainly  that  he  was 
a  Roman  Catholic.  The  distinctly  Protestant  character  of  the 
College  is  evident  from  the  regulation  that  "every  student  had 
to  subscribe  the  Covenant  before  the  Principal  on  entrance, 
before  the  Rector  on  matriculating,  before  the  Dean  of  P"aculty 
on  graduation,  and  at  least  once  a  year'." 

Within  the  next  two  years  eight  bursaries  and  a  Hebrew 
lectureship  were  instituted.  In  connection  with  this  lectureship 
the  council  ordains  the  Provost  and  Principal  Dun  to  arrange 
with  John  Row,  one  of  the  town's  ministers,  and  afterwards 
Principal  of  King's  College,  for  a  Hebrew  lesson  being  given 
once  a  week.  At  the  meeting  in  Edinburgh  in  1647,  at  which 
all  the  universities  were  represented,  Marischal  College  presented 
to  the  Commissioners  a  report  of  its  courses  of  instruction  very 
similar  to  that  sent  in  by  King's  College.  In  both  Aristotle 
occupies  a  prominent  place-. 

Dun  was  succeeded  in  1649  by  Principal  Moir,  who  along 
with  the  Regents  appointed,  of  their  own  motion,  a  lecturer  in 
Humanity,  for  whose  remuneration  they  surrendered  part  of 
their  salaries.  Such  self-sacrifice  is  as  admirable  as  it  is  rare. 
Why  such  a  lectureship  was  required  does  not  appear.  Possibly 
the  Latin  in  daily  use  was  deteriorating,  and  greater  attain- 
ments in  it  were  nece.ssary  to  the  intelligent  apprehension  of 
lectures  delivered  in  that  language.  The  arrangement  was 
carried  out  for  about  twelve  years,  when  it  was  discontinued 
and  not  resumed  for  a  century  and  a  half. 

Neither  the  Commonwealth  nor  the  Restoration  produced 
important  changes  in  the  College.  During  the  former  several 
endowments  were  received,  and,  as  already  mentioned  on  p.  135, 
subscriptions  "  towards  the  building  of  a  new  public  school  in 
Marischal  College,"  were  contributed  by  Oxford,  Cambridge  and 
Eton.  Immediately  after  the  Restoration  parliament  passed  an 
act  confirming  the  Earl's  charter,  and  giving  anew  to  all  the 

^  Bulloch's  History  of  Aberdeen  University,  p.  94. 

*  See  Appendix  for  comparison  of  the  courses  in  1647  and  1690. 


142  SECOND    PERIOD.      MARISCHAL   COLLEGE  [CH. 

members  the  privileges  and  jurisdiction  appertaining  to  any  free 
college  in  the  realm. 

The  terms  of  this  Act  of  Confirmation  and  the  specification 
of  privileges  and  jurisdiction  warrant  the  inference  that  the 
College  had  obtained  distinctly  University  rank.  For  the  next 
twenty  years  the  administration  of  the  college  was  uneventful. 
Even  the  troublous  times  of  the  Revolution  left  it  practically 
unscathed. 


APPENDIX   A. 
Courses  in   Marischal  College  in   1647. 

1.  "Unto  these  of  the  first  classe  is  taught  Clenardus, 
Antesignanus  his  Grammar;  for  orations  twa  of  Demosthenes, 
ane  of  Isocrates  ;  for  poets,  Phocyllides,  and  some  portions  of 
Homer,  with  the  haill  New  Testament. 

2.  "Unto  the  second  class  a  briefif  compend  of  the  Logickis, 
the  text  of  Porphrie,  and  Aristotele's  Organon,  accurately 
explained  ;  the  haill  questiones  ordinarily  disputed  to  the  end  of 
the  demonstrationes. 

3.  "To  the  thrid  the  first  twa  bookis  of  Ethickis  and  the 
first  fyve  chapteris  of  the  thrid,  text  and  questiones,  the  first 
fyve  books  of  acroamaticks,  qusestiones  de  compositione  continua, 
and  some  of  the  eight  bookis. 

4.  "To  the  fourt,  the  bookis  de  caelo,  de  generatione,  the 
meteors,  de  anima,  Joannes  a  Sacro  bosco  on  the  spheare,  with 
some  geometry." 


Courses  in  Marischal  College  in  1690. 

I.  The  first  year  students  "are  instructed  in  Philologie, 
Hebrew,  Greek  and  Latine,  and  the  principles  of  Arithmetick  ; 
and  when  they  have  made  some  progress  in  those  languages, 
towards  the  middle  of  the  year,  they  declaime  and  make  public 
orationes  befor  the  masters  and  students  upon  some  commend- 
able subject  both  in  Greek  and  Latine." 


X]  CURRICULA   OF    1647    AND    1690  I43 

2.  Those  of  the  second  year  "are  instructed  in  Logick  and 
the  methods  of  reasoning,  both  conforme  to  the  principle  of  old 
and  new  Philosophic,  their  scverall  penses  and  taskes  are 
explained  each  morning  by  the  master  of  this  class,  and  arc 
examined  each  night,  and  in  the  forenoone  thcr  arc  constant 
repetitions  of  what  hath  been  formerly  taught  and  examined. 
When  they  are  for  some  pairt  of  this  year  advanced  in  their 
Logick  they  doe  then  dispute  publickly  and  do  emitt  theses  and 
the  disput  is  moderat  by  one  of  the  professors.  They  are  like- 
ways  instructed  in  the  principles  of  Geometric,  and  have  their 
publick  declamations  each  week  for  that  year  and  in  the  close  of 
the  week  are  examined  of  ane  sacred  lessone,  and  upon  Sabbath 
dayes  after  sermon  do  give  ane  account  of  God's  Word  preached 
unto  them." 

3.  Those  of  the  third  year  "are  instructed  in  the  Generall 
Physiologic  and  principles  of  Natural  Philosophic  conform  to 
the  old  and  new  Philosophic.  Ther  is  taught  to  them  ane  idea 
of  all  the  hypotheses,  both  ancient  and  modern.  After  the 
periode  and  close  of  the  philosophick  course  they  are  by  their 
respective  masters  informed  in  the  principles  of  Morality  and 
Aethicks." 

4.  The  fourth  year  students  "are  instructed  in  the  know- 
ledge of  Metaphysicks  and  Speciall  Phisiologie,  are  informed 
how  to  explain  all  the  particular  phenomena  of  nature... are 
instructed  in  the  principles  of  Astronomic... undergo  ane  tryall 
and  examen  of  their  proficiency  in  all  the  four  years'  courses 
befor  the  Principall  and  Masters,  and  therafter  doe  emitt  public 
theses,  which  they  defend  in  ane  solemn  maner  in  presence  of  all 
the  Doctors,  Professors,  and  learned  men  of  the  University. 
And  therafter,  after  they  have  solemnly  bound  themselves  by 
oath  to  the  Protestant  Religione,  and  to  be  gratefull  to  their 
Alma  Mater,  they  doe,  conforme  to  their  sevcrall  qualifications, 
receive  the  degree  of  Masters  of  Arts." 


CHAPTER    XI 

SECOND    PERIOD   (1583  to  1696).     EDINBURGH    UNIVERSITY 

The  origin  of  the  University  of  Edinburgh  is  a  subject  on 
which  conflicting  accounts  are  given,  and  which  it  is  impossible 
here  to  discuss  at  lengths  More  cannot  be  attempted  than  a 
summarised  statement  of  accepted  facts.  It  is  unquestionable 
that  Bishop  Reid  in  1557  bequeathed  8000  merks  for  the  purpose 
of  establishing  a  college  in  which  arts  and  law  should  be  taught. 
There  is  no  good  reason  for  thinking  that  he  meant  by  this  the 
founding  of  a  university,  but  simply  such  a  school  of  "arts  and 
jure"  as  is  referred  to  in  the  act  of  1496.  But  whatever  was  his 
intention,  it  is  certain  that  it  was  not  fulfilled.  Through  the 
neglect  or  mismanagement  of  his  executors  2500  merks,  after 
more  than  twenty  years,  fell  into  the  hands  of  the  Town  Council, 
and  were  employed  in  helping  to  build  "the  Town's  College"  for 
which  a  charter  had  been  got.  Only  to  this  extent,  and  probably 
without  intention,  can  he  be  regarded  as  one  of  the  founders  of 
the  university.  In  Craufurd's  history  of  the  university  we  are 
told  that  "the  three  older  universities  by  the  power  of  the  Bishops 
bearing  some  sway  in  the  Kirk,  and  more  in  the  State,  did  let 
their  enterprise^"  In  what  way  this  opposition  was  operative, 
and  how  it  was  overcome,  is  not  known. 

For  twenty  years,  from  1561  onwards,  the  Town  Council,  and 
ultimately  the  ministers  of  Edinburgh,  made  vigorous  efforts  for 
the  promotion  of  advanced  education  by  appeals  to  Queen  Mary 
"to  grant  to  the  Town  the  place,  yards,  and  annuals,  of  the 
Friars  and  Altarages  of  the  Kirk,  for  maintenance  of  the  Grammar 
School,  as  also  for  the  Regents  of  a  College  to  be  built  within 

1  Sir  A.  Grant's  Story  of  Edinburgh  University,  vol.  i.  pp.  97-9  and  168-9. 

2  Craufurd's  History  of  the  University  of  Edinburgh,  p.  19. 


CH.  XI]      THE   FOUNDING    OF   THE   "TOWN'S   COLLEGE"  I45 

this  Burgh."  In  i  564  the  Town  Council,  after  negotiations  with 
the  Provost  of  the  Collegiate  Church  of  Kirk-of-Field  for  the 
purchase  of  that  site,  speak  of  "  making  a  university."  The 
purchase  however  was  not  completed.  Two  years  later  the 
Queen,  probably  under  compulsion  and  much  against  her  will, 
"granted  her  Charter  conveying  the  Kirk-of-Field  and  all  other 
monastic  property  in  Edinburgh  to  the  Town  Council  for  the 
support  of  Protestant  ministers  and  the  poor*."  This  again  was 
on  the  advice  of  James  VI  devoted  to  education.  The  founding 
of  a  college  was  not  included  in  this  grant.  Queen  Mary, 
besides,  qualified  the  grant  by  a  condition  that  the  present  in- 
cumbents were  to  have  a  life-rent  of  their  benefices,  the  result  of 
which  was  that  in  1581  the  ministers  and  citizens  of  Edinburgh, 
"  having  obtained,"  as  Craufurd  says,  "  a  gift  of  a  University, 
purchased  their  right  of  the  Kirk-of-Field,  to  be  a  place  for  the 
situation  of  the  intended  college-." 

It  is  on  all  hands  admitted  that  James  Lawson,  in  association 
with  Balcanquhall,  Little,  and  Charteris,  was  the  man  to  whom 
the  foundation  of  the  Edinburgh  College  is  due^  In  1578  and 
for  several  years  thereafter  the  rivalry  between  the  Presbyterian 
and  Episcopal  parties  was  keen.  Craufurd,  with  probably  some 
exaggeration,  says,  "  the  Bishops  were  then  universally  abhorred 
in  the  whole  Kirk  of  Scotland,"  and  that  "  the  time  being 
favourable,  was  well  plyed  by  the  ministers  and  citizans  of 
Edinburgh."  Lawson  had  very  high  qualities  in  respect  of  both 
piety  and  culture,  and  had  the  honour  of  being  appointed 
successor  to  John  Knox  as  Chief  Minister  of  Edinburgh.  "  By 
his  earnest  dealing,"  says  Craufurd,  "  the  High  Grammar  School 
was  compleated  in  the  place  of  the  ruined  monastery  of  the  Black- 
friars,  with  some  intention,  if  no  more  could  be  obtained,  at 
least  to  make  it  scholani  illiistrcm,  with  profession  of  Logick 
and  the  parts  of  Philosophic  in  private  classesV 

1  Sir  A.  Grant's  Slory  of  Edinburgh  University,  i,  p.  103. 

^  QxTM^wxiV?,  History  of  tht  Uni^'crsity  of  Edinburgh,  p.  21. 

'  "In  the  year  after  its  opening  its  chief  promoter,  and  best  and  wisest  friend, 
James  Lawson,  was  banished  from  Scotland  by  the  influence  of  the  Earl  of  Arran, 
and  shortly  afterwards  died  in  London,  to  the  great  grief  of  all  the  godly."  Sir 
Alex.  Grant,  p.  158. 

■•  Craufurd's  History  of  the  University  of  Edinburgh ,  p.  20. 

K.   E.  10 


146  SECOND   PERIOD.      EDINBURGH    UNIVERSITY  [CH. 

The  phrase  "having  obtained  the  gift  of  a  University"  has 
given  rise  to  a  question  as  to  the  possible  loss  of  the  original 
charter  for  the  foundation  of  the  college.  Sir  Alexander  Grant 
discusses  very  ably  and  at  considerable  length  this  question,  for 
which,  because  its  bearing,  though  interesting,  is  antiquarian  and 
speculative  rather  than  educational,  room  cannot  be  found  in 
this  volume^ 

About  the  genuineness  of  King  James's  charter  of  April  14th, 
1582,  there  is  no  question.  It  has  no  resemblance  to  the  Bulls 
founding  the  three  earlier  universities.  It  nowhere  speaks  of 
founding  a  stndium  generale^  says  nothing  about  privileges, 
faculties,  or  staff.  Queen  Mary's  charter  provides  only  for  the 
ministry  and  the  poor.  To  this  King  James,  then  a  boy  16 
years  of  age,  doubtless  by  the  advice  of  the  Regent,  adds  "  the 
furtherance  of  education  and  learning."  It  gives  power  to  the 
Town  Council  to  accept  of  endowments  in  support  of  the  objects 
mentioned,  to  build  schools  and  colleges  for  professors  and 
students,  and  appoint  suitable  teachers  with  the  advice  of  the 
ministers.  But  while  the  Council  may  provide  for  the  teaching 
of  humanity,  philosophy,  theology,  medicine,  laws,  and  other 
liberal  sciences  as  in  a  stiidmm  generate,  this  name  is  not  given 
to  the  institution  nor  is  the  word  '  university '  used.  The  early 
Reformers  had  little  favour  for  such  independent  institutions  in 
which  heresy  might  be  taught  unchecked. 

At  the  same  time  it  must  be  admitted  that  for  nearly 
a  hundred  years  before  it  is  designated  as  a  university  in  the 
town's  records  of  1685,  it  did  the  work  and  discharged  at  least 
one  of  the  functions  belonging  to  a  university.  In  1587 
degrees  were  conferred  on  48  students.  In  this  respect  it 
resembled  the  Academy  of  Geneva  which,  though  not  recognised 
by  the  King  of  France  as  a  university,  conferred  degrees  which 
were  recognised  by  some  universities  as  valid. 

Meanwhile  in  1583  they  began  to  "inclose  the  present 
precincts  of  the  College  with  walls-,''  the  chief  part  of  which  was 
"  Hamilton  House"  on  the  north  side  of  the  present  quadrangle. 
In  this  large  house  class-rooms,  a  hall,  and  sleeping  apartments 

^  Sir  A.  Grant's  Story  of  Edinburgh  University^  i,  ])p.  107 — 120. 
^  Craufurd,  p.  23. 


XI]  CHARACTER   OF   THE   ORIGINAL   FOUNDATION  I47 

were  provided.  This  house  and  a  wing  added  by  the  Town 
Council  represented  all  the  building  with  which  the  Town's 
College  opened  its  career. 

This  done,  the  Town  Council  "  began  to  deliberate  on  a 
Rector  to  preside  over  the  Academy^"  and  their  choice  by  the 
advice  of  Lawson  fell  on  Robert  Rollock,  a  young  man  of  high 
reputation  for  both  scholarship  and  character.  He  had  never 
been  out  of  Scotland,  as  the  heads  of  the  three  older  universities 
had  been.  He  was  the  only  teacher,  and  was  engaged  for  only 
one  year,  subject  to  "  using  himself  faithfully,"  at  a  salary  of 
£40  Scots  and  fees,  which,  in  the  debased  condition  of  Scots 
currency  at  the  time,  represented  between  ;^20  and  £2^  sterling. 
This  beginning,  humble  in  itself,  and  especially  in  comparison 
with  the  dignity  and  cc/at  derived  from  the  intervention  of 
Bishops,  Kings,  and  Papal  Bulls  in  the  founding  of  the  older 
universities,  affords  very  strong  presumptive  evidence  that, 
whatever  may  have  been  the  more  ambitious  aims  of  Lawson 
and  Charteris,  the  development  of  the  Town's  College  into  a 
famous  University  was  a  gradual  process,  not  seriously,  if  at  all, 
dreamt  of  by  the  King  or  Town  Council  at  its  inception. 

The  college  from  the  outset  aimed  at  a  university  standard. 
An  entrance  examination  was  prescribed,  and  as  a  number  of 
students  came  up  insufficiently  acquainted  with  Latin,  which 
was  the  language  to  be  used  both  in  lectures  and  conversation, 
Duncan  Nairn  was  appointed  a  second  master,  to  take  charge  of 
a  preparatory  or  tutorial  class,  attendance  at  which  did  not 
count  for  graduation.  The  college  opened  with  about  80 
students,  50  under  Rollock,  the  rest  under  Nairn.  The  college 
was  residential.  The  students  slept  in  it,  and  wore  gowns. 
Neither  of  these  regulations  seems  to  have  been  fully  carried 
out   afterwards.     The   first  was   departed    from   probabU'  from 

^  Consultare  de  Rectore  (lui  Academiae  praeesset.  Charteris,  Lt/e  of  Rollock, 
p.  42.  Sir  A.  Grant,  p.  1,^0,  is  probably  right  in  thinking  that  Charteris  purposely 
used  Rcitor  and  Academy  from  their  ambiguous  meaning,  the  former  being  applied  to 
a  high  University  Ofilcial,  and  also  to  the  head  of  a  grammar  school,  the  latter  being 
the  word  by  which  the  Humanists  designated  a  university,  and  also  the  name  of  the 
degree-giving  Institution  of  Geneva,  which  was  declared  not  to  be  a  university. 
Charteris  thus  furnished  himself  with  a  defence  in  the  event  of  exception  being  taken 
to  the  ambiguous  words. 

10 — z 


148  SECOND    PERIOD.      EDINBURGH    UNIVERSITY  [CH. 

want  of  room,  the  second  because  a  distinctive  garb  was  disliked, 
but  in  both  we  have  evidence  of  the  survival  of  medieval  usage. 
There  is  no  information  in  the  city  records  as  to  how  the 
collegiate  life  in  respect  of  food  was  conducted.  Craufurd  says 
that  when  the  Abbey  of  Paisley  became  vacant  by  the  forfeiture 
of  the  Hamiltons  and  Erskines,  at  the  King's  donation  it  was 
bestowed  on  the  city,  and  that  there  was  some  intention  of  using 
part  of  it  towards  provision  for  household  expenses,  but  "  revolu- 
tions of  State  quashed  the  design'." 

After  the  establishment  of  bursaries  in  1597  we  have  evidence 
of  another  medieval  survival  in  the  menial  services  demanded 
of  the  bursars,  who  in  turns  rang  the  bell  for  the  assembling  and 
dismissal  of  classes,  and  kept  the  stairs  and  passages  clean  by 
brushes  attached  to  their  feet.  This  was  called  "paidelling." 
The  rigidity  of  the  rules  about  play,  work,  religious  observances, 
church  attendance,  and  subsequent  examination  on  the  scope  of 
the  sermons,  all  suggest  the  same  medieval  origin.  From  ten  to 
eleven  months  in  the  year  every  hour  of  a  long  day  was  spent 
under  the  constant  supervision  of  a  Regent.  Notwithstanding 
these  marks  of  a  domestic  or  collegiate  rather  than  a  university 
constitution,  degrees  continued  to  be  conferred  with  no  apparent 
source  for  the  assumption  of  an  authority  which  had  hitherto 
been  derived  only  from  either  Kings  or  Popes.  These  degrees 
were  recognised  as  valid,  and  the  power  to  confer  them  was 
ratified  by  the  Act  of  1621.  We  are  probably  warranted  in 
supposing  that  the  Town's  College  gradually  grew  into  a 
University  by  usage  or  prescriptive  right. 

It  is  beyond  question  that  from  its  commencement  under 
Rollock  the  college  took  the  attitude  and  adopted  the  fashions 
of  a  university  in  respect  of  study,  course  for  graduation,  and 
nomenclature  of  classes — Bajan,  Semi-Bajan,  Bachelor,  and 
Magistrand  for  the  four  years  of  the  curriculum  I  The  lines 
of  study  were  much  the  same  as  in  the  older  universities 
with   improvements  suggested  by  experience.      The  chief  dif- 

^  Craufurd's  Hist,  of  Edin.  Univ.  p.  26. 

^  Bajan  from  Bec-jaune,  yellow  beak,  or  unfledged  bird.  Bachelor  from  Bas- 
chevalier,  indicating  incomplete  degree.  The  derivation  is,  according  to  Skeat, 
unsettled.     In  Aberdeen  Tertian  is  the  name  for  the  third  year  student. 


xi]      THE  town's  college  becomes  a  university       149 

ferences  were  that  while  h"terature  and  scholarship  had  Httlc 
attention  given  them  in  medieval  times,  the  first  year  was  now 
devoted  to  Greek  and  Latin  and  that  it  was  no  longer  sufficient 
to  have  Aristotle  studied  from  Latin  translations.  Tiie  Organon 
and  New  Testament  were  to  be  read  in  the  original  Greek ;  the 
Dialectics  of  Ramus,  the  RJictoric  of  Talaeus,  Cosmography,  and 
descriptive  Anatomy  formed  part  of  the  course  for  graduation. 
Geometry  and  History  had  not  yet  found  a  place  in  the  cur- 
riculum. 

As  the  number  of  students  increased,  one  Regent  after 
another  was  appointed,  till  in  session  1589 — 90  there  were, 
besides  Rollock,  who  had  ceased  to  be  a  Regent  on  being  made 
Professor  of  Theology,  four  Regents  appointed,  each  of  whom 
carried  the  Bajan  class,  with  which  in  rotation  he  commenced, 
through  the  four  years  to  graduation.  The  Reformers  wished 
to  abolish  this  rotation  of  Regents,  but  it  continued  till  the 
beginning  of  the  i8th  century,  and  was  gradually  given  up  as 
the  subjects  covered  a  wider  range,  each  demanding  more  fulness 
and  accuracy  than  could  be  expected  from  a  teacher,  much  of 
whose  time  had  to  be  devoted  to  other  subjects. 

In  the  examination  for  degrees  no  Regent  was  allowed  to 
examine  the  class  he  had  taught.  This  regulation,  coupled  with 
the  strictness  of  discipline  already  referred  to,  the  small  size  of 
the  classes  and  frequent  examinations  seems  to  warrant  the 
inference  that  the  student  who  crowned  his  four  years  with  the 
degree  of  Master  was  probably  not  inferior  to  the  modern 
graduate'.  We  have  here  again  a  trace  of  medievalism.  The 
backbone  of  the  examination  was  Aristotle's  Organon,  Analytics, 
Topics  and  Ethics,  the  Dialectics  of  Ramus,  and  Astronomy. 
Greek  as  a  specific  subject  was  omitted,  probably  because  the 
reading  of  Aristotle  in  the  original  was  thought  a  sufficient  test 

^  It  appears  from  Craufurd's  History,  p.  6i,  that  the  first  ten  graduations  under 
Rollock  give  an  annual  average  of  28.  The  candidates  for  graduation  were  arranged 
in  classes  or  circles.  The  most  distinguished  were  above  the  circles ;  the  next  were 
placed  in  the  first  circle ;  the  next  were  those  who  nearly  approached  the  first  circle ; 
the  next  were  placed  in  the  second  circle.  All  these  passed  with  honours.  The  last 
contained  the  names  of  those  who,  though  falling  below  honours,  were  worthy  to  be 
ranked  as  graduates. 


150  SECOND   PERIOD.      EDINBURGH    UNIVERSITY  [CH. 

of  that  language.  Other  omissions  are  Hebrew  Grammar, 
Anatomy,  and  Geography,  which  were  apparently  thought  not 
essential  for  degrees. 

The  candidates  for  'honours'  were  arranged  in  five  classes, 
the  fifth  or  lowest  being  those  who  fell  short  of  honours  but  were 
thought  worthy  of  a  bare  pass. 

The  ceremonies  connected  with  graduation  were  more 
elaborate  then  than  now.  On  the  day  before  it  all  the  successful 
candidates  signed  the  Confession  of  Faith,  and  solemnly 
promised  loyalty  to  their  Alma  Mater.  The  next  day,  from  the 
morning  till  six  in  the  evening,  was  occupied  with  disputations 
on  a  Thesis  drawn  up  by  the  Senior  Regent,  in  the  presence  of 
the  Lord  Chancellor  of  Scotland,  Privy  Councillors,  Lords  of 
Session,  and  Advocates.  They  were  conducted  in  Latin,  several 
students  being  appointed  to  defend  the  Thesis  against  all 
antagonists,  some  of  whom  were  frequently  ministers  and 
lawyers  who  had  been  educated  in  foreign  universities.  This 
exercise  did  not  affect  the  graduation  list,  but  was  engaged  in  as 
being  a  useful  and  interesting  test  of  expertness  in  argument. 
It  is  to  such  disputations  that  the  academic  term  wrangler 
owes  its  origin. 

Education  in  Theology  was  introduced  in  15 86  when  Rollock 
was  appointed  Professor  of  that  subject.  It  was  not  a  class  for 
graduation,  but  simply  a  course  of  lectures  for  the  benefit  of 
those  who  intended  to  become  ministers.  Into  this  work 
Rollock  threw  himself  with  all  the  earnestness  and  wisdom 
which  characterised  him  throughout  the  whole  of  his  career. 

We  see  from  the  preceding  pages  that  the  college,  which  on 
*  the  day  of  small  things  '  started  with  a  single  Regent,  had  taken 
root,  had  its  Regent  changed  into  a  Principal  and  Professor  of 
Theology  with  the  oversight  of  four  Regents,  and  a  power  of 
conferring  degrees  after  a  curriculum  of  distinctly  University 
type  recognised  as  valid.  It  had  not  yet  got  a  Professor  of  Law, 
but  in  1590  an  effort — unfortunately  unsuccessful — was  made  in 
this  direction.  The  circumstances  that  led  to  its  failure  are 
obscure  and  in  some  respects  mysterious.  Sir  Alexander 
Grant  has  made  an  exceedingly  able  attempt  to  penetrate  the 


XI]  GROWTH   OF   FACULTIES   OTHER   THAN   ARTS  151 

mystery,  but  as  it  is  not  essential  to  our  purpose  it  does  not 
seem  necessary  to  do  more  than  state  the  facts'. 

Three  parties,  the  Lords  of  Session,  the  Advocates  and 
Writers  to  the  Signet,  and  the  Town  Council  provided  each 
;iCiooo,  the  Town  Council  obliging  themselves  to  pay  ;^300  a 
year  interest  on  the  ;^3000  towards  the  maintenance  of  a 
"  Professor  of  the  Laws."  Adam  Newton  got  the  first  appoint- 
ment, and  held  it  for  four  years,  when,  "not  having  the 
approbation  of  the  Town  Council,"  he  was  removed,  and  Sir 
Adrian  Damman  was  appointed  and  held  it  for  three  years. 
"Both  of  them  did  only  professe  Humanitie  publicly  in  the 
College  without  any  mention  of  the  Lawes-."  The  mystery  is — 
why  did  neither  of  them  lecture  on  Law  ? 

In  1597  the  three  parties  to  the  proposal  of  a  Professor  of 
Laws  resolved  to  give  it  up  altogether.  For  this  resolution  no 
reason  is  recorded.  The  ^300  destined  for  it  was  divided  into 
two  portions,  i^200  to  establish  six  bursaries,  and  £100  for  a 
salary  to  a  private  Professor  of  Humanity.  The  qualification  of 
this  appointment  by  "  private "  can  only  mean  that  the  duties 
attached  to  it  were  tutorial  and  below  university  rank,  for  the 
Humanity  class  was  not  yet  matriculated,  and  did  not  count 
towards  graduation.  The  Professor  or  Regent  of  Humanity  was 
on  a  lower  level  than  the  other  Regents.  We  have  evidence  of 
this  in  the  fact  that  it  was  by  no  means  uncommon  for  him  to 
exchange  his  position  for  the  Rectorship  of  grammar  schools 
such  as  the  Edinburgh  High  School  (p.  7),  and  even  the 
Canongate  grammar  School. 

Professorships  of  Latin  in  the  modern  sense  were  first 
established  in  St  Andrews  in  1620,  in  Glasgow  in  1637,  and  in 
Aberdeen  in  1839. 

That  it  was  thought  expedient  to  appoint  a  teacher  of  Latin 
in  connection  with  the  University  may  seem  to  indicate  a  general 
falling  off  in  acquaintance  with  Latin  after  the  Reformation,  but 
it  must  be  remembered  that  medieval  and  especially  conversa- 
tional Latin  was  monastic  and  made  no  pretension  to  classical 

'  Grant's  5A)rj'  of  Edin.  Univ.,  I,  pp.  184—9.    ^^  maybe  added  here  that  no  Pro- 
fessor of  Law  was  appointed  till   1707. 
^  Craufurd,  p.  35. 


152  SECOND   PERIOD.      EDINBURGH   UNIVERSITY  [CH. 

purit)-,  and  mi^dit  be  fairly  likened  to  the  working  knowledge 
of  French  and  German  acquired  by  the  average  commercial 
traveller  or  domestic  servant,  who  has  spent  a  few  months  in 
France  or  Germany.  Another  reason  for  a  preparatory  Latin 
class  in  the  college  was  that  a  habit — not  yet  outgrown — was 
gradually  creeping  in  of  sending  boys  to  college  at  an  age  when 
they  would  have  been  better  at  school.  To  such  an  extent  had 
this  habit  grown  that  in  1656  the  Town  Council  proposed  to 
abolish  the  Humanity  class,  "as  prejudicial  not  only  to  the 
Grammar  School  but  to  the  College  itselP."  Another  reason  is 
furnished  by  the  desire  for  a  purer  Latinity  created  by  the 
Humanists  at  the  Renaissance,  for  which  systematic  teaching 
was  indispensable. 

In  1620  the  joint  offices  of  Principal  and  Professor  of 
Divinity,  which  till  then  had  been  held  first  by  Rollock  and  then 
by  Charteris,  were  separated.  For  a  discussion  of  this  separation 
and  the  appointment  of  a  layman  to  the  Principalship,  reference 
must  be  made  to  Sir  Alexander  Grant's  History,  I,  195 — 203. 
Suffice  it  to  say  that  on  the  death  of  Rollock  and  the  resignation 
of  his  successor  Charteris,  Patrick  Sands,  formerly  a  Regent,  a 
layman  who  had  been  unsuccessful  at  the  bar,  was,  by  what 
many  thought  scandalous  nepotism,  made  Principal.  This 
arrangement  involved  the  necessity  of  appointing  permanently, 
as  it  turned  out,  an  additional  Professor  of  Divinity,  who  had 
nothing  to  do  with  the  systematic  teaching  of  Theology.  As 
the  ministers  of  Edinburgh  had,  by  negotiation  in  1608,  a  joint 
voice  with  the  Town  Council  in  the  appointment  of  college 
officials,  it  is  probably  not  unfair  to  allow  the  charge  of  jobbery 
to  be  shared  between  them.  The  separation  of  the  two  offices 
is  the  more  indefensible,  when  we  learn  that  in  several  cases 
the  Professor  of  Divinity  undertook  the  charge  of  a  city  church 
in  addition  to  his  college  duties  which  were  exceedingly  light. 

Step  by  step  the  college  was  steadily  advancing  towards  the 
status  of  a  university.  One  step  was  the  foundation  of  this  new 
Chair  of  Divinity,  for  which  endowment  and  a  house  for  the 
Professor  were  provided  by  a  number  of  donations — some  very 
large — during  the  early  years  of  the  17th  century.  Others  were  the 

^  Sir  A.  Grant's  Story  of  Edinburgh  University,  I,  p.  193. 


XI]  ORGANISATION    OF  THEOLOGICAL   TEACHING  I  53 

promotion  of  the  senior  and  second  Regents  to  the  rank-  of  public 
Professors  of  Mathematics  and  Metaphysics  respectively.  These 
Professors  did  not  cease  to  be  rotating  Regents,  but  in  addition 
to  their  former  duties  they  delivered  two  lectures  a  week, 
presumably  of  higher  type,  to  the  two  highest  classes.  There 
was  no  important  change  in  the  system  of  graduation.  Yet 
another  step  was  taken  when  the  Act  of  Parliament  of  162 1 
granted  to  the  college  and  all  its  members  "all  liberties,  freedoms, 
and  immunities,  and  privileges  appertaining  to  a  free  college,  and 
that  in  as  ample  form  and  large  manner  as  any  college  has  or 
enjoys  within  His  Majesty's  realm'."  The  terms  here  employed 
are  practically  identical  with  those  by  which  the  Charter  of 
Marischal  College  (which  could  confer  degrees)  was  confirmed 
and  accordingly  made  the  College  of  Edinburgh  a  University. 

For  ten  years  during  which  the  Rectorship  was  held  by  Ramsay 
and  Lord  Prestongrange  its  duties  were  nominal,  and  the  office 
fell  into  abeyance  for  nine  years,  when  in  1640  it  was  revived 
and  conferred  on  Alexander  Henderson  with  important  duties 
attached  to  it ;  see  Dictionary  of  National  Biography.  These 
duties  may  be  shortly  described  as  a  general  supervision  of 
everything  connected  with  the  college,  financial  and  academic 
alike.  This  function  he  discharged  with  rare  fidelity  and  judg- 
ment, raising  for  college  purposes  a  loan  on  the  security  of  the 
town,  and  securing  to  the  college  the  assignation  of  "remnants 
of  rents  of  the  Deanery  of  Edinburgh  and  of  the  Bishopric  of 
Orkney."  To  him  was  due  the  commencement  of  new  accom- 
modation for  the  library  and  other  necessary  buildings.  By  his 
advice  the  first  appointment  was  made  of  a  Professor  of  Hebrew 
to  which,  in  spite  of  its  importance  in  a  College  of  Theology,  little 
attention  had  hitherto  been  paid.  By  overtures  to  the  General 
Assembly  in  1645  he  got  provision  made  for  the  visitation  of 
grammar  schools,  for  more  careful  examination  for  degrees,  for 
entrance  examinations  and  for  correspondence  and  uniformit)' of 
standard  between  Edinburgh  and  the  older  universities.  He 
took  an  active  and  effective  part  in  carrying  out  university 
reforms  of  all  kinds. 

On  his  death  the  Rectorship  was  again  given    to  Andrew 

^  Sir  A.  Grant's  Stoty  of  Edinburgh  University,  1,  ]>.  204- 


154  SECOND   PERIOD.      EDINBURGH    UNIVERSITY  [CH. 

Ramsay  and  after  him  to  Douglas,  both  eminent  ministers.  But 
in  1665  the  Town  Council  resolved  that  in  all  time  coming  the 
Lord  Provost  should  be  Rector  and  Governor  of  the  college. 
We  have  in  this  resolution  evidence  of  the  difference  between 
Edinburgh  and  the  older  universities  in  respect  of  origin.  In 
Edinburgh  it  was  distinctly  municipal.  All  its  most  important 
transactions — sometimes  self-assertive  and  injudicious  as  in  this 
instance — were  due  to  the  initiative  of  the  Council. 

Up  to  this  point  only  incidental  reference  has  been  made 
to  the  foundation  of  chairs  connected  with  the  medical  profession. 
We  find  vague  and  unsatisfactory  mention  of  Professors  of  Medi- 
cine and  Anatomy,  but  nothing  definite  as  to  their  exact  position 
and  academic  importance.  And  yet  it  is  the  fact  that,  ages 
before  the  idea  of  a  university  or  even  a  scJiola  illustris  in 
Edinburgh  had  taken  shape,  earnest  workers  had  initiated  a 
movement,  which  was  to  have  as  its  result  in  1505  the  incorpora- 
tion of  the  fraternity  of  Barber-Surgeons,  the  earliest  surgical 
corporation  in  the  United  Kingdom. 

Long  before  this  time  monks,  as  being  the  only  educated 
body,  had  charge  of  the  treatment  of  disease.  These  early 
labourers  in  the  field  of  medical  or  surgical  practice  had  little,  if 
any,  help  from  the  recorded  experience  of  their  predecessors. 
Printing  was  only  thirty  years  old.  The  country  was  not  more 
than  half  civilised,  and  only  a  small  minority  could  read  or 
write.  Scourgings,  hangings,  and  beheadings  were  surroundings 
little  suited  to  encourage  peaceable  pursuits  or  scientific  research. 
Notwithstanding  these  unfavourable  conditions  the  pioneers  of 
medical  science  had  so  far  established  an  honourable  reputation, 
that  they  were  granted  a  charter  confirmed  by  royal  authority,  by 
which  they  were  invested  with  the  right  of  not  only  practising 
and  teaching  medical  science,  but  of  deciding  by  examination 
the  qualifications  of  all  who  wished  to  join  the  corporation  of 
Barber-Surgeons. 

The  relation  of  barbers  to  the  Church  requires  a  word  of 
explanation.  Originally,  and  for  centuries,  barbers  were  little 
more  than  servants  of  the  clergy  for  the  discharge  of  certain 
duties,  such  as  shaving  of  heads  and  letting  of  blood.  But  in 
the     13th    century    the    Church    issued    a    solemn    edict    for- 


XI]    THE   INCORPORATION    OP^   A   COLLEGE   OF   SURGEONS      1 55 

bidding  its  Clerics  and  Doctors  to  soil  their  hands  with  blood, 
"  Ecclesia  abhorret  e  san<^uine."  The  inevitable  effect  of  this 
edict  was  to  split  up  medical  practice  into  two  departments,  one 
for  Surgery,  the  other  for  the  dispensing  of  Medicine.  The 
former  of  course  fell  to  the  barbers,  the  latter  to  the  monks'. 
This  edict  does  not  seem  to  have  been  strictly  obeyed,  for, 
towards  the  end  of  the  14th  century,  we  find  some  of  the  clergy 
practising  the  arts  of  both  medicine  and  surgery  with  great 
success. 

Meanwhile  the  Barber-Surgeons  in  the  course  of  centuries 
had  through  experience  and  study  accumulated  practical  skill, 
and  could  afford  to  disregard  the  attempts  made  by  the  practi- 
tioners of  physic  to  debar  them  from  practising  surgery.  They 
felt  their  own  strength,  and  that  it  was  from  every  point  of  view 
desirable  that  a  remedy  should  be  found  for  this  irregular  and 
uncomfortable  state  of  matters.  The  "Seal  of  Cause"  under 
which  the  Royal  College  of  Surgeons  was  established  furnished 
the  remedy  required.  For  a  good  many  years  after  its  estab- 
lishment no  records  seem  to  have  been  kept  of  its  proceedings, 
but  that  its  course  was  one  of  steady  and  most  satisfactory 
progress  cannot  be  doubted.  A  clear  proof  of  the  estimation  in 
which  its  members  were  held  is  found  in  the  fact  that,  before 
the  end  of  the  17th  century,  a  number  of  them  had  been  ap- 
pointed surgeons  in  royal  households.  That  the  college  had 
a  large  share  in  establishing  the  famous  medical  school  of 
Edinburgh  is  beyond  question. 

The  corporation  was  at  first  simply  a  civic  institution  and 
derived  its  powers  from  the  local  authorities.  The  document 
called  a  "  Seal  of  Cause,"  for  which  royal  authority  had  been 
obtained,  provides  that  no  one  shall  practise  the  craft  of  surgeon 
or  barber  unless  he  be  a  freeman  and  burgess,  expert  in  all 
points  belonging  to  the  said  craft,  and  has  been  examined  and 
approved  for  his  knowledge  of  anatomy  and  all  the  veins,  so  as 
to  practise  phlebotomy  on  proper  occasions.  It  provides  also  that, 
once  a  year,  the  body  of  a  condemned  man  be  handed  over  to  the 
craft    for  dissection.     We   see  from    this   how  far  these   early 

'  Dr  J.    Smith,   Royal   College  of  Surgeons,    pp.    7 — 10,    1905  :    an    ailmirable 
account  of  the  college  published  in  connection  with  the  Fourth  Centenary. 


156  SECOND   PERIOD.      EDINBURGH   UNIVERSITY  [CH. 

workers  were  ahead  of  their  age,  when  we  find  that,  many  years 
after  this,  Charles  V  appointed  an  assembly  of  divines  in  Sala- 
manca to  discuss  whether  it  was  consistent  with  religion  and 
conscience  to  dissect  a  human  body  for  the  purposes  of  science^ 
We  cannot  but  regard  with  pride  and  profound  respect  those 
who    in    a  semi-barbarous  age   thus  led   the  way   in  scientific 
research,  and  laid  the  foundation  of  this  famous  medical  school. 
The  Physicians  and  Apothecaries  were  not  yet  incorporated, 
and  viewed  with  a  strong  feeling  of  jealousy  the  success  of  the 
Surgeons  in  being  practically  the  only  legitimate  teachers  and 
practitioners  of  the  healing  art  in  all  its  forms.     The  apothe- 
caries had  naturally,  to  begin  with,  a  closer  connection  with  the 
physicians  than  with  the  surgeons,  but  in  view  of  the  vigour 
shown  by  the  surgeons,  and  the  somewhat  offensive  assumption 
of  superiority  and  right  of  interference  by  the  physicians,  they 
thought   it   advisable  to   cast  in    their   lot  with    the    surgeons. 
Hence  the  institution  by  the  Town  Council  of  Surgeon-Apothe- 
caries of  Edinburgh  to  which  all  apothecaries,  who  were  freemen 
and  passed  a  specified  examination,  were  admissible.     This  Act 
of  Council  was  confirmed  by  ratification  in  parliament  in  1695. 
Its  subsequent  development  will   be  dealt  with   in   our  Third 

Period. 

In  the  latter  half  of  the  17th  century  the  teaching  of 
literature,  science,  and  arts,  was  at  a  very  low  ebb,  but  a  brilliant 
change  was  at  hand.  The  Gregorys  and  Maclaurin  early  in 
the  1 8th  century  by  their  mathematical  research  made  the 
college  famous.  Sibbald,  Pitcairne,  Balfour,  Burnett,  and  others 
eminent  in  medical  science  laid  the  foundation  of  the  now 
famous  medical  school  of  Edinburgh.  A  lease  of  the  garden 
belonging  to  Trinity  Hospital  was  got  from  the  Town  Council 
for  the  start  of  a  Botanical  Garden  which  in  the  course  of  a  few 
years  was  incorporated  into  the  college.  Within  five  years  of 
the  end  of  the  century  a  professor  of  Botany  was  appointed. 

Sibbald  and  those  associated  with  him  meanwhile  revived  a 
proposal  for  the  establishment  of  the  Royal  College  of  Physi- 
cians, towards  which  attempts  had  been  made  fifty  years  before. 
These  were  renewed  in   1630,  and  again  in   1656,  but  without 

1  Hutchinson's  Biographia  Medica,  ii,  p.  472. 


XI]   TFIK    INCORPORATION   OF   A    COI.I,E(n-:   <  »]•     PHYSICIANS    1 57 

success.  After  strong  opposition  by  the  surgeon-apothecaries 
and  the  town  of  Edinburgh,  Sibbald  got,  with  the  full  concur- 
rence of  the  other  universities,  a  patent  signed  by  Charles  II 
for  the  proposal.     The  conditions  specified  in  the  patent  were: 

1st.  That  the  College  of  Physicians  should  have  no  power 
to  erect  a  medical  school  or  confer  degrees. 

2nd.  That  its  patent  should  be  without  prejudice  to  the 
rights  and  privileges  conceded  to  the  University  or  College  of 
St  Andrews,  Glasgow,  Aberdeen  and  Edinburgh. 

3rd.  That  graduates  of  the  said  universities  might  freely 
practise  medicine  in  the  other  university  towns.  If  they  resided 
in  Edinburgh  they  would  be  subject  to  the  Bye-Laws  of  the 
College  of  Physicians ;  but  all  university  graduates  might 
claim  to  be  licentiated  by  the  college  without  examination 
and  without  fee. 

This  was  followed  by  an  Act  of  Council  in  March,  1685,  in 
the  following  terms:  "The  Council  considering  that  the  College 
of  this  city  being  from  the  original  erection  and  foundation 
thereof,  by  his  Majesty  King  James  VI,  erected  into  a  Univer- 
sity, and  endowed  with  the  privilege  of  erecting  professorships  of 
all  sorts,  particularly  of  medicine,  and  that  the  Physicians  have 
procured  from  his  late  Majesty,  King  Charles  II,  a  patent 
erecting  them  into  a  College  of  Physicians,  and  that  there  is 
therefore  a  necessity  that  there  should  be  a  Professor  of  Physic 
in  the  said  College  ;  and  understanding  the  great  abilities  and 
qualifications  of  Sir  Robert  Sibbald,  unanimously  elect,  nominate, 
and  choose  the  said  Sir  Robert  Sibbald  to  be  Professor  of  Physic 
in  the  said  University,  and  appoint  convenient  rooms  in  the 
College  to  be  provided  for  him,  where  he  is  to  teach  the  art  of 
Medicine^" 

In  September  of  the  same  year  the  Council  appointed  Halket 
and  Pitcairne  as  colleagues  to  Sibbald  as  Professors  of  Medicine. 
Sutherland  had  already  been  elected  Professor  of  Botany.  A 
Faculty  of  Medicine  was  thus  practically  established.  The 
Professors  of  Medicine  had  neither  salaries  nor  specified  duties. 
They  taught  how  and  what  they  pleased.  The  attainments  in 
languages  and  philosoph\'  which  Sibbald  expected  from  students 

^  Act  of  Council,  March  1685. 


158  SECOND    PERIOD.      EDINBURGH    UNIVERSITY  [CH. 

attending  his  lectures  would  have  been  a  stumbling-block  to  the 
average  medical  student  of  the  present  day'. 

The  college  or  university,  as  it  may  without  impropriety 
now  be  called,  expanded  in  other  directions.  Under  the  wise 
and  energetic  Principalship  of  Carstares  a  Chair  of  Ecclesiastical 
History  was  founded  in  1702  and  was  followed  by  a  Professor- 
ship of  Law. 

This  and  further  expansions  will  be  dealt  with  when  the 
third  and  fourth  periods  are  reached. 


SUMMARY. 

During  the  136  years  covered  by  this  period  university  life 
in  all  the  five  Institutions  was  in  a  continual  state  of  change 
and  unrest.  There  were  no  fewer  than  seven  alternations  between 
Presbytery  and  Episcopacy.  This  was  in  many  ways  hostile  to 
academic  progress  in  spite  of  the  generally  beneficent  influence 
of  men  of  the  type  of  Andrew  Melville,  Knox,  Buchanan, 
Spottiswoode,  Henderson,  Arbuthnot,  Carstares,  &c.  They  had 
all  been  injured  by  the  Reformation,  and  the  greed  of  the 
nobility  in  appropriating  funds  meant  for  education. 

The  medieval  character  of  the  teaching  underwent  consider- 
able changes.  The  Rector  was  no  longer  a  teacher.  The 
substitution  of  professorial  for  regent  teaching  was  alternately 
adopted  and  rejected.  Commissions  were  appointed  and  visita- 
tions made  with  little  effect.  Funds  were  wanting,  the  number 
of  students  was  reduced,  and  the  classes  in  Glasgow  and 
Aberdeen  temporarily  broken  up.  In  1563  Queen  Mary  made 
to  Glasgow  a  bequest  which,  though  not  intended  for,  was  by 
King  James  devoted  to  education,  and  revived  not  the 
University  but  the  Faculty  of  Arts,  which  practically  repre- 
sented it. 

Melville  on  becoming  Principal  of  Glasgow  broadened  and 

1  In  the  Edinburgh  Courant  of  14th  Feb.  1706,  he  published  an  advertisement,  in 
excellent  Latin,  to  those  who  wished  to  be  admitted  to  his  lectures  on  Natural  History 
and  Medicine,  ending  with  a  warning  that  he  would  not  enrol  as  students  any  who 
did  not  know  Latin  and  Greek,  all  Philosophy,  and  the  fundamentals  of  Mathematics. 
Sir  A.  Grant's  Story  of  Edinburgh  University,  i,  p.  227. 


XI]    SUMMARY  OF  UNIVERSITY  DEVELOPMENT  1560 — 1696     I  59 

liberalised  the  curriculum,  and  by  checkin<^  a  habit  that  had 
crept  in  of  conferring  degrees  too  loosely,  he  stimulated  exertion 
and  caused  graduation  to  be  valued.  The  result  of  a  conference 
between  Melville  and  Arbuthnot,  Principal  of  King's  College, 
Aberdeen,  was  the  production  of  new  schemes  of  studies  and 
administration  for  Glasgow  and  St  Andrews.  Earl  Marischal, 
annoyed  that  more  than  twelve  years  had  been  wasted  over 
the  settlement  of  the  nova  fundatio  for  Aberdeen,  founded  in 
1593  Marischal  College.  In  four  years  thereafter  the  7iova 
fundatio  was  sanctioned  subject  to  revision  by  the  commis- 
sioners. The  antagonism  between  Episcopacy  and  Presbytery 
was  very  strong,  the  one  party  demanding,  the  other  refusing, 
signature  to  the  Covenant,  and  was  a  serious  hindrance  to 
progress,  but  the  record  of  nearly  thirty  years  of  Episcopal 
ascendancy  was  very  good. 

By  an  Act  of  Parliament  in  1641  King's  and  Marischal 
Colleges  were  united.  The  union  was  for  many  years  merely 
nominal  owing  to  mutual  jealousy.  Each  college  seems  to  have 
kept  to  its  own  administration.  This  jealousy  was  not  an 
unmixed  evil,  but  in  some  respects  a  healthy  stimulus  to 
progress,  Marischal  with  youthful  vigour  leading  the  way. 
Some  changes  introduced  by  Cromwell  in  165 1  as  the  result  of 
a  visit  he  paid  to  the  northern  university  were  set  aside  at  the 
Restoration. 

On  the  re-establishment  of  Presbytery  in  1690  a  Parliamentary 
Commission,  among  several  important  changes,  recommended 
consideration  of  a  former  proposal  about  the  distribution  of 
philosophical  subjects  among  the  four  universities.  This  sug- 
gestion, called  a  "  cursus  philosophicus,"  came  to  nothing.  The 
management  rules  of  Marischal  College  were  similar  to  those  of 
the  other  universities.  It  received  many  contributions  from 
private  sources  for  the  foundation  of  bursaries  and  chairs.  Its 
character  was  distinctly  Protestant,  and  its  curriculum  mainly 
post-Reformation,  Aristotle  still  occupying  a  prominent  position. 

We  have  seen  that  the  Town's  College  in  Edinburgh  com- 
menced with  no  such  high  aim  as  the  foundation  of  a  university, 
that  its  origin  was  mainly  municipal,  owing  nothing  to  Bishop's 
patronage   or    Papal    Bull,  and   that   step  by  step    it    reached 


l6o  SECOND    PERIOD.      EDINBURGH    UNIVERSITY       [CH.  XI 

University  rank  by  the  Act  of  1621.  But  we  have  seen  also 
that  within  four  years  after  1583 — the  date  of  the  King's  charter 
for  the  founding  of  a  college — graduation  was  conferred  on  48 
students,  which  shows  that  it  was  discharging  one  of  the  functions 
of  a  University,  though  still  designated  simply  as  a  College. 
This  it  continued  to  do  till  its  right  to  the  title  was  beyond 
question.  An  account  necessarily  short,  but  perhaps  intelligible, 
has  been  given  of  the  establishment  of  the  Royal  Colleges  of 
Surgeons  and  Physicians. 


CHAPTER    XII 

THIRD  PERIOD  (1696— 1872).     BURGH  AND  OTHER  SCHOOLS 

In  dealing  with  the  second  period  we  saw  that  between  the 
Church  and  Town  Councils  a  modus  vivendi  as  to  their  respective 
rights  in  the  patronage  and  appointment  of  masters  to  burgh 
schools  had  been  found,  which  was,  as  a  rule,  but  not  always, 
satisfactory.  The  Town  Councils  had  begun  to  take  a  more 
lively  interest  and  to  exercise  greater  influence  in  the  manage- 
ment of  schools,  but  they  had  the  good  sense  to  ask  the 
cooperation  of  the  Presbytery  in  filling  up  vacancies  in  their 
grammar  schools,  such  as  Ayr  in  1710,  Kinghorn  in  1725,  and 
St  Andrews  in  1728^  In  other  cases  Kirk  sessions  acquired  a 
right  to  a  share  of  jurisdiction  by  contributing  to  the  salary  of 
the  master,  as  in  Crail  in  17 16^ 

In  yet  other  cases  the  patronage  was  transferred  by 
the  Town  Council  to  trustees,  as  in  St  Andrews  in  1831, 
where  by  the  munificence  of  Dr  Bell  the  Madras  College 
took  the  place  of  the  grammar  schooP.  The  case  of  Leith  High 
School  in  1835  is  very  similar. 

We  cannot  but  admire  the  zeal  shown  by  the  municipal 
authorities  for  the  promotion  of  education  from  the  Reformation 
to  the  Union  in  1707.  It  is  true  that  a  number  of  subjects,  now 
regarded  as  essential  branches,  had  either  no  place  or  a  very 
subordinate  one  in  school  curricula.  It  cannot  be  said  that  in 
any  true  sense  arithmetic  formed  an  element  in  education  till 
near  the  end  of  the   17th  century.     The  same  may  be  said  of 

*  Burgh  Records  of  Ayr,   Kinghorn  and  St  Andrews. 

-  Burgh  McYords  of  Crail. 

^  Burgh  Records  of  St  Andrews. 

K.  E.  II 


l62  THIRD    PERIOD.      BURGH    AND   OTHER   SCHOOLS        [CH. 

mathematics,  navigation,  science  and  book-keeping.  The  places 
where  arithmetic  was  first  recognised  as  part  of  the  curriculum 
are  Aberdeen,  Irvine,  Wigtown,  Dunbar  and  Stirling.  The 
earliest  notice  of  mathematics  is  in  Glasgow  in  i66o\  There  is 
no  further  mention  of  it  till  the  next  century  is  reached. 
Geography  was  not  a  branch  of  school  work  till  the  beginning  of 
the  1 8th  century.  It  is  first  mentioned  in  Edinburgh  High 
School  in  I7i5,and  not  in  Aberdeen  Grammar  School  till  1834I 
It  was  taught  to  some  extent  in  a  number  of  the  smaller 
grammar  schools.  In  1732  we  find  the  council  of  Stirling 
ordering  "two  geograficall  maps  to  be  put  up  in  the  grammar 
school  for  the  edification  of  the  youth,  the  expense  not  exceeding 
£2d^  Scotsl"  Such  expensive  material  must  have  been  largely 
prohibitive  of  its  general  introduction. 

About  the  middle  of  the  i8th  century  there  was  in 
many  quarters  a  desire  for  schools  with  a  more  liberal  and 
practical  curriculum  than  that  in  use  in  the  old  grammar  schools. 
"Academies  "was  the  name  chosen  for  such  institutions.  They  were 
meant  to  supplement  grammar  schools  by  introducing  commercial 
and  science  subjects,  but  in  many  cases  they  superseded  them  or 
became  their  rivals.  Perth  has  the  honour  of  being  the  oldest 
academy  in  Scotland.  It  was  founded  in  1760.  In  less  than 
thirty  years  Dundee  and  Inverness  followed  the  example,  and  a 
year  or  two  thereafter  Elgin,  Fortrose,  and  Ayr  had  each  their 
academy,  all  with  a  very  advanced  curriculum.  That  of  Perth 
is  surprisingly  complete.  Languages  are  not  mentioned,  the 
grammar  school  and  academy  being  separate.  Being  the  most 
ambitious  and  at  the  same  time  typical  of  the  rest,  its  curriculum 
is  probably  worth  giving  in  detail.  "  It  consisted  of  the  higher 
branches  of  arithmetic,  mathematical,  physical  and  political 
geography,  logic,  and  the  principles  of  composition;  algebra, 
including  the  theory  of  equations  and  the  differential  calculus, 
the  first  six  books  of  Euclid;  plane  and  spherical  trigonometry; 
mensuration    of    surfaces    and    solids,    navigation,    fortification, 

^  Burgh  Records  of  Glasgotv. 

^  Burgh  Records  of  Aberdeen. 

3  Burgh  Records  of  Stirling.  This  would  be  about  f,^  sterling.  They  would  not 
be  much  cheaper  now,  but  money  was  very  scarce  in  Scotland  then,  and  its  value 
very  much  higher. 


Xir]  SUBJECTS   TAUnilT    IN    SCHOOLS  163 

analytical  geometry,  and  conic  sections;  natural  philosophy,  con- 
sisting of  statics,  dynamics,  hydrostatics,  pneumatics,  optics  and 
astronomy;  and  subsequently  chemistry  was  added,  consisting 
of  heat,  light,  including  spectrum  analysis,  chemical  affinity,  laws 
of  combining  proportion,  atomic  theory,  nomenclature,  and 
notation,  the  gases,  acids,  alkalies,  &c.'" 

While  one  may  reasonably  suspect  that  a  curriculum  like  the 
above  was  in  many  respects  showy  rather  than  substantial,  and 
that  a  number  of  the  subjects  were  probably  either  not  taken  up, 
or  touched  with  a  light  hand,  it  is  matter  for  surprise  and  of 
good  omen  that  a  programme,  which  would  do  credit  to  a  fully 
equipped  science  school  of  the  20th  century,  was  even  sketched 
as  being  within  the  reach  of  the  ambitious  lad  of  nearly  150 
years  ago. 

Acting  of  plays  was  encouraged  by  Town  Councils  to  promote 
elocution  and  confidence  in  public  speaking.  This  was  the  case 
in  Edinburgh,  Glasgow,  Aberdeen,  and  Perth.  It  has  probably 
disappeared  from  the  list  of  school  subjects  owing  to  the 
discovery  that  modern  Town  Councillors'  confidence  in  public 
speaking  stands  in  no  need  of  stimulation.  Early  in  the  i8th 
century  it  had  come  under  the  ban  of  the  Church,  such  plays  as 
George  Bai-nwell  being  thought  to  have  an  immoral  tendency  I 
In  the  Kirk  Session  records  of  Perth  we  find  an  overture 
in  serious  condemnation  of  lascivious  songs,  dancings  and  stage 
plays. 

As  these  schools  were  usually  established  by  voluntary 
subscriptions  their  constitution  was  largely  proprietary.  This 
was  not  so  in  Perth  where  the  patronage  was  always  in  the 
hands  of  the  Town  Council.  In  others  such  as  Elgin,  Inverness, 
Tain,  Dundee,  Arbroath,  Ayr,  Kilmarnock,  Irvine,  Dumbarton, 
Paisley,  Greenock,  Dumfries,  &c.  the  directorate  varied.  In 
almost  all  cases  the  Town  Council  were  represented,  and  with 

'  Grant's  Burgh  Schools,  p.  119.  "This  Academy  has  in  a  large  degree  carried 
out  the  original  intention  ;  chemistry  has  been  taught  in  it  during  the  last  seventy 
years,  natural  philosophy  in  all  its  branches,  at  least  a  hundred  years,  and  the  elements 
of  geology  and  botany  about  thirty  years,  so  that  the  claim  of  Perth  to  the  honour  of 
having  been  the  first  burgh  school  in  Scotland  to  introduce  science  classes  into  our 
public  schools  is  well  founded"  :  Conference  on  Education,  p.  29. 

^  Chambers'  Domestic  Annah,  III,  584. 

II  —  2 


1 64  THIRD    PERIOD.      BURGH   AND   OTHER   SCHOOLS        [CH. 

them  were  associated  in  different  places  the  subscribers,  burgesses, 
sheriffs,  heritors,  &c. 

At  the  passing  of  the  Reform  Act  there  were  upwards  of  forty 
schools  of  an  advanced  type,  variously  described  as  grammar 
schools,  burgh  schools,  or  academies,  which  were  managed  by 
Town  Councils  as  to  appointment  of  masters,  fees,  &c.'  The 
Commissioners  appointed  in  1867  to  enquire  into  burgh  schools 
report  that  in  seventy-six  burghs  there  were  eighty-two  schools^, 
and  that  in  forty  burghs  there  were  no  High  schools  but  only 
parochial  or  other  schools,  and  that  there  were  nine  schools 
jointly  burgh  and  parochial.  The  schools  of  1867,  if  we  may 
judge  from  their  names,  appear  to  be  largely  but  not  entirely  the 
successors  or  survivals  of  those  at  the  time  of  the  Reform  Act. 
On  the  assumption  that  the  list  is  fairly  complete,  the  western 
highlands  and  the  north  fare  badly,  the  former  being  represented 
by  Inverary  and  Campbeltown,  while  north  of  Inverness  there 
are  only  Tain  and  Kirkwall. 

The  prohibition  against  sending  children  over  six  years  of 
age  to  any  but  the  public  school  continued  generally  till  the 
middle  of  the  i8th  century,  but  was  only  partially  effective,  not- 
withstanding that  fines  were  imposed  on  parents  who  did  so,  and 
that  banishment  was  in  some  cases  threatened  as  the  penalty  for 
setting  up  a  private  schooll  That  private  schools  existed  in 
considerable  numbers  warrants  two  inferences,  that  people  set  a 
high  value  on  education,  and  that  the  public  schools  were  often 
either  inefficient  or  too  expensive  for  the  limited  means  of  the 
poor*. 

Towards  the  end  of  the  century  many  Councils  not  only 
tolerated  but  encouraged  private  schools  by  money  payments^ 

In  the   1 8th  and   19th  centuries  the  school  day  was  much 
shorter  than  formerly.     While  a  few  stuck  by  the  old  tradition 

^  Grant's  Burgh  Schools,  pp.  98—99. 

2  Report  on  Burgh  Schools,  i,  p.  Ixx. 

2  Burgh  Records  of  Banff. 

*  To  make  their  prohibition  effective  the  DunfermUne  Town  Council  compelled 
the  kirk  session  to  pay  to  the  master  of  the  grammar  school  the  money  set  apart  for 
teaching  the  poor.  The  session  however  decided  to  give  something  out  of  the  'box ' 
to  the  teacher  of  a  private  school.     Grant's  Burgh  Schools,  p.  138. 

'  Burgh  Records  of  Montrose,  Stirling,  Forfar,  Ayr. 


XII]  SCHOOL   HOLIDAYS   AND   DISCIPLINE  1 65 

of  eight  or  ten  hours,  in   the  majority  of  cases  five  or  six  were 
thought  sufficient. 

With  respect  to  the  length  of  ordinary  or  autumn  hoHdays 
the  practice  varied  greatly,  ranging  from  two  or  three  to  five 
weeks  in  different  districts.  The  variation  was  quite  as  great  in 
respect  of  the  season  of  the  year  regarded  as  the  most  suitable 
time.  The  same  time  was  not  equally  suitable  for  town  and 
country.  Perth  Town  Council,  finding  that  the  end  of  August 
or  beginning  of  September  was  bad,  because  they  are  the  period 
of  "green  fruit  and  pease  which  do  occasion  diseases,"  authorised 
the  masters  to  give  vacation  from  the  middle  of  May  to  the 
middle  of  June.  June  seems  to  have  been  on  the  whole  the 
favourite  month.  The  Rector  of  the  Grammar  School  of  Ayr 
gives  in  1748  his  reason  for  the  preference,  that  May  is  generally 
cold,  and  the  fields  wear  a  winterly  face;  further  that  it  is  the 
month  when  birds  build  their  nests,  and  bird-nesting  leads  boys 
into  danger;  and  again,  some  scholars  go  to  Arran  or  other 
distant  places  for  goat  milk,  and  seldom  return  till  the  fair 
week^ 

In  country  districts  the  presentation  to  the  master  of  a  ripe 
ear  of  corn  settled  the  time  for  the  vacation. 

In  early  times,  as  now,  school  discipline  was  as  multiform  as 
human  nature.  There  were,  however,  several  general  rules  of 
universal  application,  observance  of  which  was  as  far  as  possible 
insisted  on — morning  prayer,  cleanliness,  well-combed  hair,  neat- 
ness in  clothing,  and  general  obedience.  These  were  enjoined 
as  positive  duties.  The  faults  to  be  avoided  were  falsehood, 
swearing,  indecency,  Sabbath-breaking,  and  speaking  the  ver- 
nacular. Locality  also  entered  into  the  question.  The  Dundee 
boy  was  forbidden  to  frequent  the  shore,  the  Edinburgh  boy  was 
warned  against  the  precipitous  portions  of  the  Calton  Hill. 

For  the  maintenance  of  discipline  the  methods  were  as 
various  as  the  character  and  ingenuity  of  the  teacher. 

With  regard  to  punishments  we  find  an  absence  of  definition 
as  to  method  and  extent.  One  master  is  instructed  to  punish  "  as 
he  may  think  fit,"  another  is  to  do  so  "according  to  the  quality  of 
the  fault"  or  "at  his  discretion."     In  other  cases  the  definition  is 

^  Burgh  Records  of  Ayr. 


l66  THIRD    PERIOD.      BURGH   AND   OTHER   SCHOOLS        [CH. 

more  complete,  but  still  somewhat  imperfect,  when  it  is  ordained 
that  swearing,  Sabbath-breaking,  and  rebellious  disobedience  are 
to  be  punished  for  the  first  offence  by  public  whipping,  for  the 
second  by  flogging,  and  for  the  third  by  expulsion  from  the 
school.  The  difference  between  whipping  and  flogging  is  not 
quite  clear. 

About  two  hundred  years  ago  the  Town  Council  of  Dunbar 
were  ahead  of  their  age  in  thinking  that  discipline  was  best 
where  the  flagellation  was  least,  that  the  rod  should  be  spared  as 
long  as  possible,  but  when  admonition,  warning,  and  threats 
fail,  the  master  was  not  to  "spare  the  child  for  his  much  crying." 
The  master  is  instructed,  when  admonition,  censure,  and  threats 
are  of  no  avail,  to  make  it  clear  to  the  culprits  that  he  dislikes 
corporal  punishment  and  is  not  in  a  passion.  When  he  has  made 
this  clear,  he  may  then  punish  them  beneficially. 

The  times  and  methods  of  punishments,  and  the  means  of 
detection  of  ofi'ences  were  duly  systematised,  though  with  varia- 
tions in  different  districts.  In  some  cases  the  infliction  was 
daily,  in  others  weekly,  and  in  others  monthly.  It  was  thought, 
and  probably  with  good  reason,  that  chastisement  would  lose 
much  of  its  salutary  effect,  when  it  was  administered  to  a 
numerous  body  of  defaulters,  who  would  be  tempted  to  minimise 
the  gravity  of  their  offences  by  feeling  that  others  were  in  the 
same  condemnation,  or  to  imitate  "puny  souls  who  feeling  pain 
find  ease  because  another  feels  it  too."  The  records  bear  that  in 
some  cases  the  schoolmaster  was  charged  with  the  duty  of 
punishing  not  only  for  school,  but  also  for  home  offences.  Pro- 
tests against  this  were  made  by  teachers  on  the  ground  that  the 
school  is  a  place  for  education,  not  a  place  of  flagellation,  that 
it  is  the  duty  of  parents  to  make  their  children  like  school,  and 
that  by  transferring  to  the  teacher  the  duty  of  punishing  for 
offences  committed  at  home  they  make  them  dislike  school  and 
everything  connected  with  it. 

In  the  maintenance  of  discipline  the  teacher  in  Aberdeen 
grammar  school  was  aided  by  deciiriones  and  censors.  The 
former  were  in  some  sort  pupil  teachers,  chosen  from  the 
highest  class,  and  had  each  charge  of  six  scholars  for  whose 
discipline,  conduct,  and,  to  a  certain  extent,  education,  he  was 


XII]  PUNISHMENTS,   DECURIONES,  CENSORS  167 

responsible.  How  long  and  with  what  success  this  method  was 
carried  out  is  not  known,  but  it  is  quite  possible  that  under 
judicious  supervision  it  may  have  been  good.  The  same  cannot 
be  said  of  the  duties  of  the  censor  which  were  those  of  a  detective 
officer.  He  had  to  superintend  the  several  factions  under  the 
charge  of  the  decuriones,  and  make  out  a  list  of  all  who  spoke 
their  mother  tongue,  swore,  or  broke  rules  of  discipline.  This 
list  he  handed  to  the  master,  a  practice  which  must  have  given 
rise  to  ill-feeling  among  the  other  pupils  against  the  poor  boy 
to  whom  this  duty  was  assigned. 

This  aid  to  discipline  was  in  use  in  many  parish  schools  up 
to  the  middle  of  the  19th  century,  and  had  the  effect  described. 
It  supplied  to  a  malicious  censor  a  means  of  petty  persecution 
of  any  schoolfellow  whom  he  disliked.  He  knew  that  any 
denial  of  misdemeanour  by  the  accused  would  be  outweighed  by 
his  authoritative  accusation.  This  duty  of  informer  legalised 
what  is  universally  despised  as  one  of  the  meanest  and  most 
sneaking  characteristics  whether  of  boy  or  man — that  of 
betraying  the  delinquencies  of  comrades  to  those  who  have 
power  to  punish.  The  system  of  praepostors,  prefects,  and 
fagging  in  modern  English  schools  is  suggested  by  this  reference 
to  the  discipline  in  Aberdeen  in  the  17th  century,  but  into  this 
quaestio  vexata  it  is  not  necessary  to  enter. 

Though  severe  punishments  were  more  common  in  these 
early  times  than  now,  the  matter  was  one  over  which  the  Council 
generally  exercised  supervision.  Undue  severity  made  the 
master  liable  either  to  removal  from  office,  or  after  investigation, 
to  censure,  with  injunction  against  future  action  of  the  same  kind. 
If  on  investigation  it  was  found  that  parents  complained  without 
cause  they  were  fined  or  censured. 

In  1869  a  bill  was  introduced  in  the  House  of  Lords 
providing  that  nothing  but  the  birch-rod  should  be  used  as  an 
instrument  of  punishment,  but  it  was  thrown  out.  In  old  times 
whipping  was  thought  indispensable,  and  instinct  with  a 
mysterious  virtue  even  when  vicariously  administered. 

While  it  was  little  short  of  sacrilege  to  visit  with  a  birch  the 
royal  cuticle  for  school  faults,  still  whipping  had  to  follow  fault 
as  certainly  as  night  the  day,  and  be  borne  b\-  Sir  David  Lindsay 


l68  THIRD    PERIOD.      BURGH    AND   OTHER   SCHOOLS        [CH. 

of  the  Mount  who  was  the  whipping  boy  to  James  IV,  just  as 
William  Murray,  father  of  the  Countess  of  Dysart,  was  whipping 
boy  to  Charles  I. 

Dr  Parr  of  Norwich  School  had  boundless  faith  in  the  birch. 
An  under-master  told  him  one  day  that  a  certain  pupil  appeared 
to  show  signs  of  genius.  "Say  you  so.?"  said  Parr,  "then  begin 
to  flog  him  to-morrow  morning." 

Floeeiner  is  still  an  institution  at  Eton,  but  within  more 
reasonable  bounds.  Dr  Keate,  a  former  Headmaster  of  Eton  and 
a  most  distinguished  flogger,  was  called  upon  by  a  boy  who  came 
to  take  leave.  "You  seem  to  know  me  very  well,"  said  the  master, 
"I  have  no  remembrance  of  ever  having  seen  you  before."  "You 
were  better  acquainted  with  my  other  end,"  was  the  unblushing 
reply'. 

When  this  is  contrasted  with  the  case  of  Dr  Melvin  of 
Aberdeen  Grammar  School  and  an  offending  pupil,  there  will  be 
a  general  agreement  with  the  opinion  of  the  Town  Council  of 
Dunbar  above  mentioned. 

A  boy  guilty  of  a  serious  offence  was  called  up  for  punish- 
ment. "James,"  said  the  Doctor,  "I'm  going  to  punish  you,  and 
you  must  be  a  very  bad  boy,  for  I  have  not  punished  a  boy  for 
seven  years,  but  I  must  punish  you  to-day."  After  a  few 
remarks,  firm  but  kindly,  about  the  nature  of  the  offence,  he 
opened  his  desk  and  took  out  the  tawse,  that  had  been  lying  with 
the  dust  of  seven  years  upon  it,  and  said,  "James,  hold  out  your 
hand."  James  obeyed,  and  the  Doctor,  grasping  the  instrument  of 
torture,  and  raising  it  aloft,  brought  it  down  very  very  slowly,  and 
with  the  lightness  of  a  feather  touched  James's  palm.  "  Now  James 
go  to  your  seat."  James  went,  laid  his  head  on  his  desk  and  cried 
as  if  his  heart  would  break.  He  had  not  been  hardened  by  the 
daily  contemplation  of  flogging  and  he  felt  there  was  contamina- 
tion in  the  very  touch  of  the  tawse.  Perhaps  none  but  a  strong 
man  could  rise  to  this  height  of  discipline,  but  weaker  men  might 
take  it  as  an  example,  and  probably  the  strength  would  come. 

The  earliest  record  of  competition  for  prizes  is  found  in  con- 
nection with  Glasgow  Grammar  School  near  the  end  of  the  i6th 
century.     Except  in  Glasgow,  Aberdeen,  Edinburgh,  and  a  few 

^  History  of  the  Rod,  p.  438. 


XTl]  METHODS   OF   APPOINTING   TEACHERS  169 

Other  schools,  prizes  were  not  in  use  before  the  18th  century. 
Opinions  are  somewhat  divided  as  to  the  expediency  of  the 
practice,  but  it  is  now  generally  favoured  as  being  a  healthy 
stimulus  to  industry,  and  is  almost  universally  in  use. 

We  have  satisfactory  evidence  that  throughout  the  i8th 
century  municipal  authorities  generally  acted  with  honesty  and 
earnestness  in  their  appointment  of  teachers  when  examination 
was  the  test ;  that  merit  and  not  influence  was,  as  a  rule,  the 
determining  factor.  In  many  cases  the  Councils,  not  being 
"altogether  skilful  of  the  Latin  and  Greek  languages,"  applied  to 
the  presbytery  for  help'.  The  minister,  the  presbytery,  or 
university  professors  were  applied  to  and  lent  their  aid  in  the 
examination  which  preceded  appointment.  That  the  examina- 
tion was  sufficiently  testing  at  the  end  of  the  i8th  and  beginning 
of  the  19th  century  seems  beyond  question.  In  1771  the 
candidates  for  the  mastership  of  Ayr  Academy  were  tested  as  to 
their  soundness  in  grammar,  by  literal  translation  of  advanced 
Latin  and  Greek  authors,  and  translation  of  English  into  Latin  ; 
and  as  to  their  knowledge  of  English,  by  a  free  translation  of 
the  same  authors-.  Much  the  same  test  was  applied  in  181 5, 
when  a  master  was  appointed  to  the  Elgin  Academy. 

The  importance  attached  to  music  is  shown  by  the  candidate 
in  some  cases  being  asked  to  sing  "a  tune  of  music." 

There  were  however  other  modes  of  making  appointments. 

In  some  cases  they  were  made  on  the  strength  of  testimonials 
and  recommendations.  The  universities,  famous  scholars,  or 
persons  on  whose  judgment  reliance  could  be  placed,  were  asked  to 
recommend  suitable  candidates^  These  recommendations  were 
carefully  weighed  in  deciding  between  rival  claims.  Other  ap- 
pointments were  made  after  probation.  A  candidate  presumably 
qualified  was  allowed  to  "enter  the  school  for  ane  tryall  of  a  (c\v 
months,"  after  which  if  he  gave  satisfaction  he  was  appointed ^ 

'  The  examining  body  was  sometimes  rather  heterogeneous,  and  presumably 
not  exactly  fitted  to  estimate  scholarly  attainments, — a  minister,  a  preacher,  a  beadle, 
and  a  tobacconist.     Burgh  Ktxords  of  Dunfermline. 

-  Burgh  Records  of  Ayr. 

^  Burgh  Records  of  Burntisland,  St  Andreius,  Montrose,  Kirkcudbright,  Crail, 
Dundee,  &'c. 

*  Burgh  Records  of  Ayr,  Banff,  Crail. 


I/O  THIRD    PERIOD.      BURGH    AND   OTHER   SCHOOLS        [CH. 

In  yet  other  cases  a  deputation  was  appointed  to  visit  the 
candidate  who  had  been  recommended,  to  see  him  teach,  and 
form  an  estimate  of  his  qualifications  ^  A  master  was  seldom 
appointed  by  correspondence  alone.  Personal  knowledge  was 
almost  invariably  a  requisite-.  The  ceremony  which  accom- 
panied the  admission  to  office  has  been  already  described. 

As  to  tenure  of  office  it  appears  from  Mr  Grant's  careful 
statistics  that  from  the  Reformation  to  the  end  of  the  i8th 
century  109  appointments  were  made  for  a  definite  period,  69  ap- 
pointments during  pleasure  of  Town  Councils,  49  appointments 
ad  vitatn  aut  adpam,  22  appointments  during  good  behaviour 
and  at  will.  This  last  group  may  be  fairly  regarded  as  life 
appointments. 

"  The  nature  of  the  tenure  was  not  more  different  in  the 
different  burghs  than  even  in  the  same  burghs''."  The  variation 
was  doubtless  regulated  by  the  estimate  formed  of  the  qualifica- 
tions of  the  candidates  and  the  business  capacity  of  the  Council'*. 

Up  to  the  beginning  of  the  19th  century  the  office  of  burgh 
school  teacher  was  not  regarded  as  a  uiuniis  publicum  by  either 
Councils  or  teachers.  The  teacher  was  simply  an  ordinary 
servant  with  whom  a  contract  was  made,  the  terms  of  which 
required  to  be  observed.  The  question  was  first  raised  in 
Montrose  in  1709.  The  court  of  session  ordained  that  the 
Council  should  state  rational  grounds  for  their  dissatisfaction  in 
order  that  the  court  might  consider  whether  the  teacher  should 
be  dismissed.  In  this  decision  tenure  ad  vitam  aut  culpam  is 
implied. 

In  1 81 5  Lord  Meadowbank  in  agreement  with  Lord 
Robertson  held  that  teachers  cannot  make  a  bargain  that  will 

^  Burgh  Records  of  Dysart,  Glasgow,  Stirling,  Forfar,  Peebles,  &'c. 

^  Burgh  Records  of  Paisley,  Stirling. 

^  Grant's  Burgh  Schools,  pp.  257 — 8. 

^  In  1785  two  joint  teachers  were  appointed  to  Dumbarton  Grammar  School  for  a 
year,  in  1786  for  another  year,  in  1787  for  two  years,  and  in  1789  for  two  years,  the 
Town  Council  being  of  opinion  "  that  it  is  much  to  be  desired  that  a  short  agreement 
should  be  made  in  order  that  the  Council  should  be  fully  satisfied  with  their  diligence 
and  behaviour."  Burgh  Records  of  Dumbarton.  A  good  specimen  of  Scottish 
caution  :  but  after  four  years'  trial  such  caution  seems  to  reflect  either  on  the  character 
of  the  teachers  as  being  questionable,  or  on  the  Council  as  weak  and  lacking 
decision. 


XII]  APPOINTMENT   AND   TENURE    OF    MASTERS  I/I 

deprive  them  of  this  tenure'.     In   1867  the  opinion  of  counsel 
was  given  that  a  contract  on  other  terms  would  be  illegal-. 

It  is  impossible  to  say  that  the  question,  despite  the  many 
times  it  had  been  raised,  was  definitely  decided.  The  presump- 
tion of  law,  however,  in  respect  of  burgh  schools,  and,  to  a  less 
extent,  of  academies  and  high  schools,  was  in  favour  of  a  tenure 
ad  vitam  ant  culpani. 

By  the  education  act  of  1872  the  tenure  of  office  by  teachers 
of  burgh  and  parochial  schools  appointed  after  the  passing  of 
the  act  is  "during  the  pleasure  of  the  school  board."  For  those 
previously  appointed  there  is  no  change. 

Up  to  the  end  of  the  17th  century  signature  to  the  Confession 
of  Faith  was  one  of  the  conditions  of  appointment.  With  the 
1 8th  century  it  practically  ceased  to  be  obligatory.  During  the 
first  sixty  years  of  the  19th  century  the  recorded  instances  of 
signature  are  less  than  twenty.  In  1861  it  was  enacted  that  it 
was  no  longer  necessary  for  burgh  school  teachers  to  sign  the 
Confession,  or  to  be  members  of  the  Established  Church^  But 
even  before  that  time  membership  of  the  Established  Church 
had  in  practice  fallen  into  disuse.  Of  1 13  burgh  school  teachers 
in  1 861  only  50  were  members  of  the  Church  of  Scotland.  We 
have  here  satisfactory  evidence  of  a  steadily  growing  liberality 
of  spirit  in  matters  ecclesiastical.  We  find  much  the  same 
spirit  in  matters  political.  In  1690  all  teachers  were  obliged 
to  take  the  oath  of  allegiance  to  the  Crown ^.  There  are  very 
few  instances  of  political  disability  and  consequent  removal  from 
office  during  the  17th  and  i8th  centuries^ 

Though  no  statutory  provision  was  made  for  retiring  allow- 
ances, it  was  not  unusual  to  grant  pensions  for  long  and  faithful 

'  Shaw's  Cases,  xiv,  715,  note. 
'^  Report  on  Burgh  Schools,  I,  2 2 9. 

*  Act  24  and  25  \'ictoria  c.  107,  §  12. 

*  Act  1690,  c.  25,  IX,  163. 

5  History  of  the  AW,  p.  183.  A  Glasgow  teacher  was  put  in  the  pillory  for 
seducing  soldiers  to  desert.  Burgh  Records  of  DuttcLe.  A  Dundee  teacher  was 
removed  for  joining  preachers  who  prayed  expressly  for  the  Pretender  as  King 
James  VIII.  Presbytery  Records  of  Chatiomy.  A  Fortrose  teacher  in  1746  was 
found  "  utterly  unqualified  as  teacher  of  youth ''  for  encouraging  his  scholars  to 
make  a  bonfire  in  honour  of  the  Pretender,  and  writing  on  their  copies  "  Honour  to 
Prince  Charlie." 


172  THIRD    rERIOD.      BURGH   AND   OTHER   SCHOOLS        [CH. 

services^     Other  ways  in  which  faithful  services  were  rewarded 
have  already  been  referred  to. 

We  have  a  striking  proof  of  the  change  in  the  value  of  money 
in  the  fact  that  not  far  from  the  beginning  of  the  19th  century, 
thirty-five  years  of  faithful  service  was  thought  to  be  sufficiently 
rewarded  by  a  pension  of  iJ"io  to  a  man  "far  advanced  in  years 
and  unable  to  be  employed  elsewhere^"  Pensions  though  often 
given  were  often  refused.  In  a  large  number  of  important  and 
successful  grammar  schools  no  regulations  for  granting  annuities 
were  made.  The  ad  vitam  aiit  culpa7n  tenure  added  both  dignity 
and  security  to  the  office.  It  is  matter  for  regret  that  nothing 
satisfactory  has  been  done  to  compensate  for  its  abolition.  Regu- 
lations in  this  direction  would  be  in  two  ways  beneficial,  first,  in 
freeing  from  the  charge  of  harshness  the  removal  of  worn-out 
teachers,  and  secondly  in  raising  the  standard  of  education. 

At  the  beginning  of  the  i8th  century  the  highest  class  in 
important  grammar  schools  read  Terence,  Horace,  Virgil, 
Juvenal,  Cicero,  Livy,  Florus,  Sallust,  &c.;  the  lower  classes 
Ovid,  Velleius  Paterculus,  Nepos,  Claudian,  Curtius,  Phaedrus, 
the  Colloquia  of  Corderius,  Erasmus,  and  the  lowest  class  the 
Vocables  of  Wedderburne.  In  some  schools  the  highest  class 
learned  rhetoric  and  "had  e.xercises  in  orations,  compositions, 
versions,  and  verse  according  to  their  giftsl"  As  we  approach 
the  end  of  the  i8th  and  the  beginning  of  the  19th  century 
Corderius,  Despauter,  and  other  grammatical  works  had  dis- 
appeared from  the  lists  of  school  books,  and  classical  study 
was  substantially  the  same  as  in  modern  schools. 

Whatever  view  may  be  taken  of  the  vexed  question  as 
to  the  date  at  which  Greek  was  first  taught  in  Scotland,  it  is 
safe  to  say  that  the  amount  of  Greek  teaching  in  the  16th 
century  was  very  small.  It  is  however  unquestionable  that 
provision  was  made  for  it  as  a  school  subject  in  the  17th  and 

^  Burgh  Records  of  Ayr.  In  1746  the  Council  agree  to  pay  to  the  teacher  who  had 
given  nearly  50  years'  service  and  was  now  "aged,  valetudinary,  and  tender,  his 
yearly  salary  during  the  short  time  he  may  now  live."  It  is  not  uncharitable  to  infer 
from  the  terms  of  the  grant  that  their  liberality  received  some  stimulus  from  a  belief  that 
he  would  not  trouble  them  long. 

2  Burgh  Records  of  Kirkcudbright. 

^  Chalmer's  Life  of  Ruddiman,  pp.  88,  90. 


XII]  THE   TEACHING    OF   GREEK  173 

1 8th  centuries,  but  of  the  extent  to  which  it  was  taught  we  have 
little  clear  evidence.  Several  facts  go  to  show  that  it  had  not 
then  taken  a  deep  hold  in  the  most  important  schools.  In 
the  list  of  books  used  in  Edinburgh,  Glasgow  and  Aberdeen 
no  Greek  text-books  are  found'.  BoswelP  and  Lord  Mon- 
boddo  in  his  letters  refer  to  the  lack  of  Greek  scholarship  in 
Scotland  in  the  i8th  century  and  old  Scottish  libraries  and 
booksellers'  catalogues  contain  no  valuable  Greek  books.  It  is 
exceedingly  difficult  and  apparently  impossible  to  reconcile  con- 
flicting accounts  on  this  subject.  In  Steven's  High  School  of 
Edinburgh  (p.  48)  we  are  told  that  "a  fifth  class  was  established 
in  the  High  School  in  16 14,  and  the  scholars,  during  their 
attendance  on  it,  were  taught  the  rudiments  of  the  Greek 
language,"  and  (p.  205)  again  that  in  1820  a  master  of  the  High 
School  wrote  a  private  letter  to  the  patrons  "containing  the 
sketch  of  a  plan  for  the  establishment  of  a  Greek  class  in  the 
High  School.  With  the  exception  of  an  endowment  of  a  medal 
by  the  Town  Council  in  18 14,  this  was  the  first  time  that  the 
Greek  language  was  authoritatively  recognised  as  forming  part 
of  the  study  in  the  High  School."  Greek  however,  though  not 
authoritatively  established,  had  not  been  neglected,  for  Steven 
quotes  in  an  appendix  (p.  336)  under  date  1822  a  most  creditable 
specimen  of  Greek  verse  by  one  of  his  pupils.  Again  we  find  in 
the  Burgh  Records  of  Greenock  that  a  committee  deputed  to  visit 
Irvine  Academy  reported  that  "a  class  of  lads  most  of  whom 
were  not  employed  beyond  twelve  months  upon  Greek,  had 
read  several  prose  authors,  and  made  such  progress  in  Homer, 
that  they  could  translate  readily  the  first  six  books  of  the  Iliad 
and  the  New  Testament  Epistles  and  Evangelists  ad  aperturam 
libriy  This  must  be  taken  with  a  grain  of  salt,  and  be  classed 
with  the  unconfirmed  tradition  of  John  Row's  teaching  of 
Hebrew  in  Perth  Grammar  School  in   1632. 

We  learn  fromthe  Report  of  theEndowed  Schools  Commission 
that  in  1872  Greek  was  taught  in  about  30  schools,  one  half  of 
them  reaching  as  high  as  Xenophon,  the  other  half  covering  such 


*  Grant's  Burgh  Schools,  347. 

-  Boswell's  Life  0/  Johnson,  637,  chap.  LXIX,  i860  ed. 


1/4  THIRD    PERIOD.      BURGH    AND   OTHER   SCHOOLS        [CH. 

authors  as  Homer,  Euripides,  Sophocles,  Herodotus,  Thucydides, 
and  Plato \ 

From  the  Report  on  Burgh  Schools  in  1868  we  find  that  in 
schools  in  which  there  was  a  combination  of  elementary  and 
higher  education,  only  3  per  cent,  learned  Greek,  and  21  per 
cent,  Latin,  and  that  instruction  in  classics  in  69  schools  visited, 
public,  private,  and  mixed  elementary,  was  in  29  per  cent,  good, 
25  per  cent,  fair,  31  per  cent,  indifferent,  and  15  per  cent.  bad-. 
The  duration  of  the  curriculum  varied  to  some  extent  in  different 
districts  in  the  17th  and  i8th  centuries,  but  generally  it 
extended  to  five  years.  In  the  19th  century  the  variation  was 
greater  but  in  few  cases  was  it  longer  than  six  years. 

We  have  seen  above  that  at  the  Reformation  the  teaching 
of  Music  lost  much  of  its  prominence.  During  the  greatest 
part  of  the  i8th  century  efforts  only  moderately  successful 
were  in  different  places  made  to  revive  it.  During  the  first 
half  of  the  19th  century  it  revived  considerably  in  the  ordinary 
schools,  and  since  the  Act  of  1872  it  has  received  more  and 
steadily  increasing  attention  in  these  schools,  but  in  the  Report 
on  Burgh  Schools  in  1868  it  was  taught  in  only  eight  out  of  fifty- 
four  schools^ 

The  teaching  of  English  in  the  new  or  modern  way  began  to 
be  asked  for  in  most  of  the  grammar  schools  about  the  middle  of 
the  1 8th  century.  English  as  a  department  was  not  in  the 
curriculum  of  grammar  schools  till  near  our  own  day.  It  is  now 
taught  in  them  all. 

French  alone  of  modern  foreign  languages  was  pretty  generally 
taught  in  important  grammar  schools  from  early  in  the  i8th 
century  except  in  Aberdeen,  Banff,  and  Moray.  The  explanation 
of  this  probably  is  that  in  these  three  counties  which  furnished 
the  largest  contingent  of  candidates  for  the  bursary  competition 
in  Aberdeen  University,  the  importance  of  Latin  was  so  great  as 
to  exclude  the  study  of  any  foreign  language.  About  the 
middle  of  the  19th  century  German  was  taught  in  most  of 
the  higher-class  public  schools'*. 

^  Report  on  Endowed  Schools,  n,  341 — 602. 

'■*  Report  on  Burgh  Schools,  I,  109 — 113. 

*  Report  on  Burgh  Schools,  I,  254,  255. 

''  Report  of  Board  of  Education,  II,  154,  1874. 


XII]  SUHJKCTS    TAUdllT    IN    TIIK    IQ'Ill    CKNTUKV  175 

Drawing  and  painting  were  taught  in  a  few  burgh  schools, 
and  navigation  in  the  schools  of  seaboard  towns.  Smatterings 
of  physical  and  natural  science  were  taught  in  1868  to  about 
5  per  cent,  of  all  the  pupils  in  54  burgh  schools'. 

From  the  earliest  times  till  1872,  when  it  became  optional,  the 
tradition  of  religious  instruction  as  an  essential  school  subject 
was  maintained,  and  Sunday  as  mentioned  above  (pp.  27,  100) 
was  no  day  of  rest-. 

It  has  already  been  pointed  out  that  a  very  small  part  of  the 
patrimony  of  the  Church  was  secured  for  education,  and  that  the 
few  schools  which  were  endowed  got  little  benefit  from  the 
endowments  owing  to  dilapidations  and  perversions  of  the  sums 
mortified.  In  these  circumstances  the  behaviour  of  magistrates 
and  councils  towards  higher  education  is  worthy  of  all  praise. 
Till  the  passing  of  the  Act  of  1872  their  contributions  from  the 
common  property  of  the  burgh  were  entirely  voluntary,  and  were 
given  in  a  liberal  and  patriotic  spirit.  In  many  cases  the  financial 
condition  of  the  town's  exchequer  was  far  from  satisfactory,  but 
in  very  (ew  instances  did  this  voluntary  contribution  to  the 
teacher's  salary  fail  to  be  paid.  Nor  was  their  zeal  for  the  good 
of  the  school  confined  to  such  payment.  Care  in  the  manage- 
ment of  its  concerns  and  anxiety  for  its  success  characterised  their 
action  generally. 

It  is  not  contended  that  there  were  not  then  as  now  varying 
degrees  of  liberality  in  councils,  but  it  must  be  remembered  that 
the  common  good  was  often  small,  that  money  was  scarce,  and 
that  teachers  were  not  of  uniform  merit  in  respect  of  industry 
and  skill.  It  was  an  unfortunate  position,  whether  it  arose  from 
the  parsimony  of  the  councils  or  the  apathy  of  the  teacher,  when 
in  1789  the  latter  was  content  to  take  charge  of  a  school  without 
salary,  and  on  condition  of  receiving  such  a  gratuity  as  the 
council  might  think  he  deserved^ 

Notwithstanding  these  efforts  there  were  cases  in  which  the 
common  good  was  exhausted,  and  stentmasters  were  appointed 
to  raise  the  amount  of  the  teacher's  salary.     Throughout  the 

^  Report  on  Burgh  Schools,  i,  124. 

'  Burgh  Records  of  Edinburgh  and  Peebles. 

^  Burgh  Records  of  Greenock. 


176  THIRD   PERIOD.      BURGH   AND   OTHER   SCHOOLS        [CH. 

1 8th  century  the  Burgh  Records  in  many  parts  of  the  country 
contain  complaints  of  the  salaries  being  insuf^cient  to  "buy  the 
necessaries  of  life"  on  account  of  the  high  price  of  all  kinds  of 
provisions,  and  in  rare  cases  the  school  was  declared  vacant. 

In  1839  primary  schools  on  the  one  hand,  and  univer- 
sities on  the  other,  were  in  receipt  of  public  money  voted  by 
Parliament  on  lines  and  for  purposes  to  which  no  objection 
could  be  taken,  but  burgh  schools,  which  were  the  main  avenue 
of  approach  to  the  universities,  were  left  to  struggle  on  as  best 
they  could  without  parliamentary  aid. 

The  struggle  was  often  very  severe.  It  is  difficult  to  speak 
too  highly  of  the  efforts  made  by  councils  and  benevolent  persons 
all  over  Scotland  to  secure  that  the  poor  should  receive  as  much 
education  as  they  were  fit  for\  The  fees  fixed  by  the  councils 
were  such  as  to  make  the  schools  accessible  to  children  of  the 
lower  class,  and  the  very  poor  were  educated  gratis,  the  councils 
paying  to  the  teacher  sums  of  various  amount  in  return  for  such 
exemption  from  fees.  To  make  up  for  necessarily  small  salaries 
a  house,  coal,  and  peats  were  often  provided,  and  payment  in 
kind  was  sometimes  resorted  to. 

In  the  1 8th  century  school  buildings  were  generally  unsatis- 
factory from  both  educational  and  sanitary  points  of  view*. 
Many  were  damp  and  had  no  fireplaces.  Sometimes  the  vestry 
and  session  house  did  duty  for  the  schools  In  some  cases  there 
were  no  desks,  the  pupils  being  obliged  to  "write  on  the  floor 
lying  on  their  bellies"."  In  others  there  was  only  one  room  in 
which  all  branches  were  taught,  and  so  small  that  soon  pupils 
could  not  be  admitted ^  The  buildings,  such  as  they  were,  were 
erected  and  upheld  from  the  Common  Good  where  any  was 
available.  If  it  was  exhausted,  resort  was  had  to  voluntary 
contributions,  subscriptions,  taxation,  and  sometimes  to  forced 


'  Report  on  Endoiued  Schools,  passim. 
2  Burgh  Records  of  Dumbarton. 
2  Burgh  Records  of  Selkirk. 

*  Burgh  Records  of  St  Andrews.  This  probably  means  that  they  wrote  on  sand 
on  the  floor.  At  Dennington,  Suffolk,  there  is  shown  a  sand  trough  which  was  used 
for  this  purpose  till  70  or  80  years  ago  by  a  nonagenarian  who  still  survives. 

*  Burgh  Records  of  Forfar. 


XIl]  THE   RISE   OF   ENDOWED   FREE   SCHOOLS  1 77 

labour.       Some    uncouth    but    fairly    descriptive    verses    by    a 
schoolmaster  throw  light  on  this  state  of  matters'. 

This  indifferent  equipment  of  burgh  schools  in  respect  of 
buildings  and  furniture  continued  till  well  past  the  middle  of  the 
last  century.  The  commissioners  of  1868,  in  their  report  of  fifty- 
four  schools  visited,  class  only  nineteen  as  good,  fourteen  as  fair, 
and  the  rest  as  indifferent  or  bad.  Since  the  passing  of  the  Act 
of  1872  it  maybe  said  that  generally  the  requirements  have  been 
met,  and  in  some  cases  with  very  liberal  aid  from  the  Scotch 
Education  Department. 

Playgrounds  in  most  cases  had  received  little  attention, 
church-yards  being  occasionally  put  to  this  usel  This  also  has 
been  largely  remedied. 

Near  the  end  of  the  17th  century  there  was  sown  by  the 
Merchant  Company  of  Edinburgh  one  of  the  first  seeds  of  a 
plant  whose  fruit  was  to  find  its  way  into  every  quarter  of  the 
civilised  world.  It  had  an  exceedingly  modest  beginning — an 
annuity  of  four  hundred  merks  for  the  maintenance  and  education 
of  four  girls,  the  daughters  of  decayed  merchant  burgesses  of 
Edinburgh.  This  germ  was  planted  in  1695,  and  was  probably 
suggested  by  the  noble  foundation  of  George  Heriot's  Trustees 
who,  sixty-seven  years  earlier,  had  commenced  to  make  a  similar 
provision  for  boys.  It  was  called  the  Merchant  Maiden  Hospital. 
Heriot's  Hospital  had  been  founded  in  1628  and  opened 
in  1659,  when  thirty  boys  were  elected  according  to  the 
original  purpose  of  the  foundation.  After  a  lapse  of  nearly 
thirty    years    George    Watson,    who    had    been    its    treasurer, 

*  Burgh  Records  of  Wigtouni.     The  'dominie'  complains  of  delay.     Though 

Every  one  did  promise  well 
To  come  for  to  rear  up  the  school ; 
The  day  appointed  had  some  frost ; 
They  all  keep't  home  their  shins  to  rost. 
But  afterwards, 

Then  every  one  came  with  a  tool 

And   timber   to  rear  up  the  school. 

They  wrought  like  mad  till  night  did  come  ; 

When  it  was  dark   they  all  went  home. 

They  hastily  again  did  meet 

And  did  put  up  the  house  compleat. 

-  Burgh  Records  of  Forfar. 

K.  E.  12 


178  THIRD    TERIOD.      BURCxII    AND   OTHER   SCHOOLS         [CH. 

left  funds  for  the  foundation  of  a  Hospital  for  the  sons  of 
decayed  merchants,  the  administration  of  which  he  put  into  the 
hands  of  the  Merchant  Company  of  Edinburgh,  as  being  a 
company  whose  establishment  by  royal  grant  was  ratified  by 
Parliament.  The  bequest  was  accompanied  by  the  suggestion 
that  its  rules  and  management  should  be,  as  near  as  possible,  the 
same  as  those  of  the  Merchant  Maiden  and  Heriot's.  In  1797 
James  Gillespie,  influenced  by  the  successful  management  by  the 
Merchant  Company  of  their  two  Hospitals,  left  that  company 
funds  for  building  and  endowing  a  free  school  for  one  hundred 
poor  boys.  No  addition  was  made  to  the  number  of  the  com- 
pany's schools  for  about  sixty  years,  when  Daniel  Stewart  in  his 
will  of  date  181 1  left  to  the  sole  management  of  the  Merchant 
Company  funds  which  with  accumulated  interest  amounted  in 
i860  to  ;^ 79,000.  This  was  employed  for  the  foundation  of  a 
Hospital  which  was  to  be  based  as  nearly  as  possible  on  George 
Watson's  as  a  model. 

As  strictly  belonging  to  our  third  period  reference  must 
be  made  to  the  beneficent  establishment  of  thirteen  Foundation 
Schools,  offering  from  surplus  Heriot  revenue  free  education  to 
the  children  of  poor  burgesses  and  freemen,  and  to  all  who  chose  to 
take  advantage  of  the  offer.  This  received  the  hearty  approval 
of  the  Merchant  Company.  These  free  schools  were  maintained 
till  the  establishment  of  free  education  by  the  Scotch  Education 
Department  made  them  unnecessary. 

As  belonging  to  this  period  it  may  be  stated  that  in  1847 
George  Watson's  Hospital  had  86  pupils,  and  that,  having  room 
for  more,  the  admission  of  day  pupils  was  proposed.  A  bill 
with  this  aim  was  thrown  out  by  the  House  of  Lords.  It  was 
again  introduced  in  1852,  and  passed. 

The  subsequent  successful  history  of  these  institutions 
belongs  more  to  our  fourth  period,  where  they  will  be  dealt 
with. 

Though  higher-class  schools  are  here  being  discussed,  it  is 
not  wholly  irrelevant  to  remark  that  there  is  no  country  in  the 
world  where  elementary  and  higher  education  have  been 
separated  by  so  thin  a  line  as  in  the  best  class  of  Scottish  parish 
schools;  no  country  in  which  what  are  above  described  as  mixed 


XIl]  ENGLISH    AND   SCOTTISH    KDUCATIONAL   IDKALS  1 79 

elementary  schools  have  had,  except  in  the  i8th  century,  such 
an  unbroken  and  successful  existence;  where  under  one  roof  and 
under  the  management  of  a  single  master  boys  of  ability  have 
found  the  gap  between  school  and  university  so  satisfactorily 
bridged.  It  is  strictly  in  keeping  with  this  account  of  a  parish 
school  that  in  the  Act  of  1872  the  word  'elementary'  is  not 
found  within  its  four  corners,  and  that  in  its  preamble  the  aim 
is  stated  to  be  that  "efficient  education  may  be  furnished  and 
made  available  to  the  ivliolc  people  of  Scotland." 

For  more  than  a  century  and  a  half  from  1696  this  aim, 
though  not  everywhere,  was  to  such  an  extent  attained  as,  in 
the  face  of  poverty  and  political  turmoil,  to  place  Scotland  in 
the  van  of  educated  nations.  Poverty,  war,  and  political  strife 
were  not  the  only  hindrances  to  progress.  One  of  the  most 
serious,  though  fortunately  short-lived,  was  the  introduction  of 
the  Revised  Code  in  i860  which,  by  making  a  fetish  of  high  per- 
centage of  pass  in  the  "  beggarly  elements,"  to  the  exclusion  of 
everything  else,  retarded  the  advance  of  higher  education  for  at 
least  ten  or  twelve  years.  The  low  level  of  the  English 
elementary  school  was  the  starting-point  of  the  new  scheme, 
and  the  result  was  to  a  great  extent  the  lowering  of  Scottish 
instead  of  the  raising  of  English  education.  Great  credit  is  due 
to  many  teachers,  especially  in  Aberdeen,  Banff,  and  Moray,  who 
refused  to  make  cent,  per  cent,  of  passes  in  the  three  R's  the 
goal  of  their  ambition.  Relief  from  this  temptation  came  with 
the  passing  of  the  Act  of  1872,  and  two  years  thereafter  a 
separate  Scottish  code.  But  for  many  years  afterwards  the 
less  intelligent  School-boards  looked  upon  cent,  per  cent.,  or 
something  near  it,  as  a  siuc  qua  non  and  worried  the  teacher 
accordingly. 

This  is  perhaps  as  suitable  a  place  as  any  other  for  reference 
to  an  important  educational  body  which  belongs  to  both  our 
third  and  fourth  periods. 

The  Educational  Institute  of  Scotland  had  its  origin  at  a 
general  meeting  of  the  teachers  of  Scotland  held  in  1847.  Its 
aims  were  to  "ascertain  and  certify  the  qualifications  of  those 
intending  to  enter  the  office  of  teacher  "  and  thereby  to  increase 
their  efficiency,  to  improve  their  condition,   and   to   raise  the 

12 — 2 


l8o      THIRD    PERIOD.      BURGH   AND   OTHER   SCHOOLS     [CH.  XII 

standard  of  Education  in  general.  The  Institute  professed  its 
deep  sense  of  the  supreme  importance  of  the  religious  training 
of  the  young,  but  wisely  resolved  to  grant  "  certification  to 
teachers "  without  inquiring  into  the  doctrinal  opinions  they 
held.  In  four  years  the  membership  had  grown  to  1800,  and 
the  Institute  was  granted  in  1851  a  Royal  Charter  of  Incorpora- 
tion empowering  it  to  hold  heritable  property,  to  use  a  common 
seal,  to  divide  its  members  into  Local  Associations,  to  appoint 
a  Board  of  Examiners,  and  to  grant  diplomas  or  certificates  to 
Fellows,  Senior  Associates  and  Junior  Associates,  Member- 
ship is  open  to  all  classes  of  teachers.  Of  its  sixty-three 
Presidents,  three  were  University  Professors,  the  remainder 
were  almost  equally  divided  between  teachers  in  secondary  and 
teachers  in  primary  schools.  In  the  list  of  its  Honorary  Fellows 
occur  the  names  of  Principal  Caird,  Sir  Henry  Campbell- 
Bannerman,  and  Dr  Andrew  Carnegie.  The  columns  of  its 
official  organ,  The  Educational  News,  are  devoted  to  Secondary, 
Intermediate  and  Primary  Education  alike. 

There  are  two  other  spheres  of  the  Institute's  activity  which 
were  probably  not  contemplated  by  its  founders, — a  thriving 
Benevolent  Fund  establii-hed  to  give  temporary  relief  to  "  needy 
members,  to  widows,  or  to  dependents  of  members,"  and  a 
Parliamentary  Committee  annually  appointed  to  "organise  and 
utilise  its  electoral  strength." 

In  recent  years  the  membership  of  the  Institute  has  increased 
by  leaps  and  bounds  to  close  on  twelve  thousand,  divided  into 
fifty-two  Local  Associations. 


CHAPTER   XIII 

THIRD    PERIOD.     S.P.C.K.   SCHOOLS 

John  Knox's  proposal  of  a  school  in  every  parish  was  not 
carried  out  till  long  after  his  death,  and  in  many  parts  of  the 
Highlands  and  Islands  never  carried  out  at  all.  Their  remote- 
ness, barrenness  of  soil,  and  their  language  were  hindrances 
additional  to  those  felt  elsewhere  in  Scotland.  Hence  we  find 
that  in  1616  "the  King's  Majestie  with  advise  of  the  Lords  of 
his  Secret  Council,  thought  it  necessar  and  expedient,  that,  in 
every  paroch  of  this  Kingdom,  quhair  convenient  means  may  be 
had  for  intertayning  a  scoole  that  a  scople  sail  be  established." 
This  Act  of  the  Privy  Council  was  confirmed,  but  it  contained  a 
most  distasteful  enactment,  viz.  that  the  "  Irishe  language  (Gaelic) 
which  is  one  of  the  chiefif  causes  of  the  continuance  of  barbaritie 
and  incivilitie  among  the  inhabitants  of  the  Isles  and  Highlandes 
should  be  abolished."  It  is  not  matter  for  surprise  that  the 
Highlanders  were  slow  to  carry  out  the  provisions  of  an  Act 
which  proposed  to  abolish  their  language,  to  which  they  were 
strongly  attached.  Funds  besides  were  sadly  wanting.  Notwith- 
standing Acts  of  Parliament  and  the  efforts  of  the  General 
Assembly  of  the  Church  to  improve  the  position  of  both 
ministers  and  teachers,  the  condition  of  the  Highlands  and 
Islands  in  1696  was  a  very  unhappy  one  in  respect  of  both 
churches  and  schools.  To  remedy  this,  a  number  of  gentlemen 
of  philanthropic  and  Christian  character  resolved  at  the  begin- 
ning of  the  1 8th  century  to  establish  a  fund  for  founding  schools 
in  those  districts  where  there  were  as  yet  no  parish  schools. 
Royal  favour  was  extended  to  their  efforts,  and  intimation  was 


1 82  THIRD   PERIOD.      S.P.C.K.  SCHOOLS  [CH. 

given  of  an  intention  on  the  part  of  the  Crown  to  erect  the 
subscribers,  the  first  of  whom  was  the  Countess  of  Sutherland, 
by  letters-patent  into  a  body  corporate  to  be  named  the  "  Society 
for  propagating  Christian  Knowledge  in  Scotland."  The  first 
Patent  was  granted  in  1709.  By  it  the  first  nomination  of 
members  was  made  by  the  Lords  of  Council  and  Session  out  of 
the  subscribers.  The  number  of  members  was  82,  9  being  peers, 
14  Lords  of  Council,  21  ministers,  the  rest  of  different  professions. 
In  the  Patent  it  is  laid  down  that  the  members  must  be  Protes- 
tants, not  necessarily  Presbyterians.  Indeed  the  majority  of 
the  London  members  were  Episcopalians.  Though  the  Society 
was  greatly  aided  by  the  General  Assembly  of  the  Church,  who 
appointed  a  select  committee  to  ascertain  where  schools  were 
most  urgently  required,  it  is  quite  clear  that  the  movement 
originated  not  with  the  General  Assembly  but  with  private 
individuals  who  thought  that  the  ignorance  and  superstition  of 
the  Highlands  demanded  attention.  The  connection  between 
the  two  bodies  was  close,  continuous,  and  beneficent,  but  it 
rested  not  on  legal  enactment,  but  on  grounds  of  mutual  confi- 
dence and  co-operation.  The  Assembly  enjoined  on  their 
Presbyteries  the  duty  of  enquiry  as  to  the  need  for  churches, 
missionaries  and  catechists,  and  of  periodically  examining  their 
schools  and  reporting  on  their'  condition  to  the  Secretary  of  the 
Society. 

To  all  applications  by  the  Society  for  assistance  from  the 
ministers  of  remote  parishes  in  the  superintendence  of  schools 
the  General  Assembly  lent  a  willing  ear,  and  strictly  enjoined 
the  several  Presbyteries  to  make  exact  enquiry  into  the  manner 
of  life  and  conversation  of  those  who  offered  their  services  as 
teachers,  and  to  report  to  the  Secretary  of  the  Society,  not  to  the 
Commission  of  the  General  Assembly.  With  the  application 
of  the  fund,  its  mode  of  management,  and  the  regulations  of  the 
schools,  they  in  no  way  interfered. 

The  practice  of  the  Society  in  reference  to  teachers,  cate- 
chists, and  missionaries  has  been  absolutely  uniform.  All  have 
been  members  of  the  Established  Church.  The  teachers  were 
tried  and  examined  by  the  five  clerical  directors,  and  none  could 
be  appointed  except  such  as  had  been  certified  by  the  judica- 


XIIl]  EDUCATION   IN    THE    HIGHLANDS  183 

tories  of  the  Church.  Similarly  the  catechists  were  necessarily 
members  of  the  Established  Church,  their  duty  being  to  co- 
operate with  the  minister  of  the  parish,  and  the  missionaries 
were  all  either  ordained  ministers  or  licentiates  of  the  Established 
Church.  Any  of  the  three  separating  himself  from  the  Church 
was  dismissed. 

While  the  charity  of  the  Society  began  at  home  it  did  not 
end  there.  The  spread  of  Christianity  among  heathen  nations 
came  within  the  scope  of  their  operations,  and  a  Board  of 
Correspondents  was  established  in   London. 

The  capital  of  the  Society  in  1708  was  ;^iooo,  and  when  in 
1711  it  amounted  to  £^700,  itinerant  teachers  were  appointed 
in  the  most  necessitous  places  in  Scotland  such  as  St  Kilda, 
Sutherland,  Caithness,  and  other  parts  of  the  Highlands  where 
there  was  either  no  parish  school  or  where,  owing  to  the  size  or 
character  of  the  district,  one  school  was  completely  insufficient. 
The  teacher's  emoluments  ranged  from  300  to  1 50  merks  (about 
i^i6to^8)  according  to  circumstances.  Schools  and  teacher's 
houses  together  with  Bibles  and  Catechisms  were  supplied. 
Interest  in  the  movement  steadily  increased,  the  proprietors  in 
many  of  the  districts  lending  their  aid.  Four  years  more  saw 
the  capital  raised  to  over  ;^6ooo. 

By  an  Act  passed  in  the  first  year  of  George  I  a  Royal 
Commission  was  appointed  to  lay  before  his  Majesty  an  account 
of  the  proper  places  for  schools  and  the  proper  salaries  for  the 
maintenance  of  teachers.  The  Commission  reported  that  151 
schools,  in  addition  to  those  already  existing,  were  required,  and 
that  ^20  was  a  sufficient  salary.  This  sum  was  a  fond  imagina- 
tion and  was  never  realised. 

In  the  sixth  year  of  his  reign  another  Act  was  passed  which 
provided  that  i,'"20,000  of  the  amount  realised  by  the  sale  of 
Scottish  estates  forfeited  after  the  rebellion  should  be  applied 
towards  the  making  of  a  capital  stock  for  erecting  and  maintain- 
ing schools  in  the  Highlands.  In  spite  of  repeated  appeals  from 
1720  to  1728  to  members  of  both  Houses  of  Parliament,  to  Barons 
of  the  Exchequer,  and  the  King  himself,  no  part  of  this  money 
has  ever  been  received  by  the  Society.  In  1725  his  Majesty 
gave  a   donation    of   ;^iooo    to   the   General    Assembly   of  the 


184  THIRD   PERIOD.      S.P.C.K.   SCHOOLS  [CH. 

Church  of  Scotland  "  to  be  employed  for  the  reformation  of  the 
Highlands  and  Islands  and  other  places  where  popery  and 
ignorance  abound."  This  donation  was  placed  under  the  control 
of  a  committee  of  the  Assembly,  has  been  continued  by  all  the 
King's  successors,  and  been  used  in  co-operation  with  the  Society 
for  propagating  Christian  Knowledge.  Though  they  failed  in 
their  efforts  to  obtain  this  ;^20,ooo,  which  they  could  have  turned 
to  excellent  account,  the  Society  continued  to  flourish.  Appli- 
cations were  made  to  the  Barons  of  Exchequer  for  part  of  the 
vacant  stipends  which  had  become  the  property  of  the  Crown, 
but  in  vain.  Donations  however  and  annual  subscriptions  were 
made  in  sufficient  number  to  enable  the  Society  not  only  to 
hold  the  ground  it  had  acquired,  but  to  widen  greatly  the  field 
of  its  operations.  It  would  be  tedious  to  give  in  detail  the 
advances  in  prosperity  from  year  to  year. 

Up  to  1738  the  main  purpose  of  the  schools  was  instruction 
in  religious  knowledge,  reading,  writing,  and  arithmetic.  The 
patent  under  which  the  Society  was  incorporated  did  not  em- 
power it  to  provide  instruction  in  industrial  pursuits  of  any  kind. 
Believing  that  enlargement  of  their  powers  in  this  direction 
would  tend  to  encourage  habits  of  industry  among  the  High- 
landers, the  Society  applied  for  and  got  a  second  patent,  but 
resolutions  were  passed  that  the  purposes  of  the  first  patent  were 
not  to  be  neglected  or  interfered  with. 

Meanwhile  efforts  for  the  prosperity  of  the  Society  were  in 
no  respect  relaxed.  The  qualifications  of  the  teachers  were 
carefully  scrutinised,  the  schools  were  regularly  visited,  a  Gaelic 
and  English  vocabulary  was  drawn  up,  Baxter's  Call  to  the 
Unconverted,  the  Mother's  Catechism,  and  the  New  Testament 
were  translated  into  Gaelic,  10,000  copies  of  the  latter  being 
printed.  But  yet  even  in  the  middle  of  the  i8th  century,  within 
the  39  presbyteries  in  which  the  Society's  schools  were  estab- 
lished, there  were  175  parishes  in  which  there  were  no  parish 
schools.  On  this  being  brought  under  the  notice  of  the  General 
Assembly,  an  Act  was  passed  enjoining  on  these  parishes  the 
duty  of  taking  all  legal  means  to  have  the  want  supplied.  This 
was  followed  by  a  resolution  not  to  erect  a  school  in  any  parish  in 
which  there  was  no  parish  school.     The  Society  also  suppressed 


XIIl]  EDUCATION    AND   APPRENTICESHIP  1 85 

schools  in  the  neighbourhood  of  forfeited  estates,  whose  rents 
had  been  annexed  to  the  Crown,  and  nominally  appropriated  to 
the  maintenance  of  schools.  It  was  also  resolved  that  "the 
Society  will  not  establish  a  charity-school  in  any  parish  unless 
the  proprietors  of  land  shall  provide  a  sufficient  school-house 
and  schoolmaster's  dwelling  house,  with  ground  for  a  kailyard, 
and  grass  for  a  cow,  and  unless  the  inhabitants  shall  furnish  and 
lead  gratis  the  peats  and  turfs  necessary  for  the  use  of  the 
schoolmaster  and  his  family'." 

Of  the  success  of  the  Society's  exertions  in  heathen  countries 
it  is  not  necessary  for  our  purpose  to  say  more  than  that  much 
Christian  effort  and  considerable  funds  were  expended  with  very 
various  results.  The  names  of  Brainard,  VVheelock  and  Kirk- 
land  stand  out  as  conspicuous  for  their  missionary  zeal. 

Under  the  second  patent,  apprenticeships  to  farmers,  smiths, 
and  carpenters  do  not  seem  to  have  come  to  much  among  the 
boys,  and  among  the  girls,  except  in  Scripture-reading  and 
teaching,  little  was  done  beyond  instruction  in  spinning,  knitting, 
sewing,  and  the  purchase  of  spinning-wheels.  Nearly  100  dames' 
schools  for  girls  were  erected.  To  some  of  the  teachers  of  these 
schools  the  pronunciation  of  the  long  and  difficult  names  of  Bible 
characters  presented  difficulties  which  one  old  woman  is  said  to 
have  overcome  by  saying  to  a  girl,  who  stuck  fast  at  a  long  name 
about  which  the  teacher  herself  had  doubts,  "just  ye  gang 
stracht  on,  Jeanie.  Dinna  mind  hoo  ye  misca'  them.  They're 
a'  deid." 

Viewed  as  a  business  concern  the  management  of  the  Society 
was  admirable.  At  the  quarterly  general  meeting  in  Januar)'  of 
each  year  a  president,  and  committee  of  15  directors,  and  other 
officials  were  elected,  all  men  of  the  highest  responsibility  and 
several  of  noble  rank.  This  committee  met  on  the  first  Monday 
of  every  month.  There  were  three  sub-committees,  one  for 
matters  of  law,  one  for  management  of  accounts,  and  one  for 
superintendence  of  schools  and  correspondence.  The  proceed- 
ings of  every  meeting  were  minuted.  All  accounts  after  being 
audited  were  laid  before  the  whole  committee.     In   short  the 

*  Account  of  the  S.P.C.K.,  I77^,  p.  25. 


l86  THIRD   PERIOD.      S.P.C.K.   SCHOOLS  [CH. 

Strictest  business  methods  were  practised.  Teachers  were 
admitted  only  after  examination,  and  were  required  to  know 
both  EngHsh  and  Gaelic.  Their  salaries  were  unfortunately 
small,  hardly  ever  reaching  ^20  or  a  little  more,  and  that  only 
from  a  special  mortification  or  local  donation.  Up  to  1774  the 
average  was  certainly  less  than  ^10.  The  fees  probably  added 
little  to  this. 

Notwithstanding  the  eminently  praiseworthy  efforts  made  by 
the  Society,  it  cannot  be  said  that  the  account  presented  in  the 
foregoing  pages  is  not,  from  some  points  of  view,  a  gloomy  one. 
There  were  many  parishes  in  which  there  were  no  parish  schools, 
more  of  a  size  entirely  beyond  the  management  of  the  most 
energetic  minister,  few  in  which  it  can  be  said  that  the  teacher 
had  a  fair  living  wage.  The  wonder  is  not  that  there  was  at  this 
time  much  ignorance,  but  that  the  lamp  was  kept  burning  at  all, 
and  that  all  the  natural  difficulties  of  inaccessibility,  width  of 
range,  tempestuous  weather,  and  stormy  seas  were  overcome  to 
the  extent  they  were.  It  seems  impossible  to  doubt  the  genuine 
missionary  and  philanthropic  motive  of  the  teachers  as  a  whole. 
Though  they  were  not  highly  educated \  how,  except  on  the 
theory  of  benevolence  and  a  strong  sense  of  duty,  can  we 
account  for  men  and  women,  of  a  certain  amount  of  education, 
in  a  practically  uneducated  range  of  country,  devoting  themselves 
to  what  was  doubtless  to  some,  and  probably  to  many,  an 
irksome  and  miserably  paid  occupation  ?  The  praeferviihim 
ingenuii}i  Scotoruin  seems  to  have  been  most  successfully  ap- 
pealed to  in  the  case  of  all  connected  with  the  movement,  which 
furnishes  a  grand  example  of  Christian  enterprise.  The  presi- 
dent, secretary,  and  directors  gave  their  services  as  a  labour  of 
love.  The  only  paid  officials  were  the  treasurer  who  collected 
and  dispensed  the  revenue,  the  accountant  who  kept  the  account 
books,  and  the  clerk  who  conducted  the  correspondence.  These 
received  £2'^  each  per  annum,  an  utterly  inadequate  payment 
for  the  time  spent  in  the  discharge  of  these  duties  by  men  of 

^  A  worthy  man  who  was  being  examined  by  the  Society  for  an  appointment  was 
asked  how  he  would  explain  to  a  class  the  passage  in  the  New  Testament  about  the 
man  sick  of  the  palsy  who  was  borne  of  four,  and  replied  that  "  he  could  not  explain 
it,  for  it  always  seemed  to  him  to  be  a  '  pheesical  impossibility.'" 


XIIl]  THE  TEACHING   OF  GAELIC  187 

eminent  social  position,  and  with  hands  full  of  other  important 
business. 

During  the  latter  half  of  the  iSth  century  the  history  of  the 
Society  is  a  simple  record  of  steady  earnest  work  and  increasing 
usefulness  over  a  larger  field,  but  presents  no  features  specially 
noteworthy.  In  1781  the  capital  amounted  to  ;{^34,ooo,  when 
the  schools  numbered  180  with  an  attendance  of  7000  pupils. 
The  teachers'  salaries  were  also  somewhat  raised. 

It  is  estimated  that  during  the  first  hundred  years  of  the 
existence  of  the  Society  children  to  the  number  of  about  300,000 
had  received  education  at  their  hands.  The  funds  were  by  this 
time  large,  but  not  too  large  for  the  demand  made  upon  them 
by  the  number  and  importance  of  the  uses  to  which  they  were 
put.  The  annual  expenditure  on  teachers,  catechists,  bursaries 
for  Gaelic  students  of  divinity,  superannuation  allowance  for  the 
aged  and  infirm,  examination  charges  and  translation  of  religious 
books  into  Gaelic  was  between  ;!^4000  and  ;{^5000.  Unfavour- 
able seasons,  small  crops,  high  prices  and  diminished  value  of 
money  were  difficulties  that  had  to  be  faced,  but  in  terms  of 
their  charter  no  encroachment  on  the  stock  was  permitted. 

Though  so  much  had  been  done  it  was  found  at  the  begin- 
ning of  the  19th  century  that  a  large  proportion  of  Highlanders 
were  unable  to  read  their  own  language.  This  was  felt  to  be 
most  unsatisfactory.  To  furnish,  if  possible,  a  remedy,  the 
Gaelic  Society  of  Edinburgh  was  formed  in  181 1.  In  the 
following  year  the  Gaelic  Society  of  Glasgow  and  in  1818  the 
Inverness  Society  followed  suit.  The  Edinburgh  Society  aimed 
at  teaching  the  reading  of  Gaelic  exclusively,  but  the  Glasgow 
and  Inverness  Societies  combined  English,  writing,  and  arith- 
metic, with  the  reading  of  Gaelic.  These  three  societies  received 
liberal  and  distinguished  support,  and  were  wholly  dependent  on 
voluntary  contributions.  In  1822  a  careful  investigation  was 
made  as  to  the  condition  of  the  Gaelic  districts  in  respect  of 
education,  the  possession  of  copies  of  the  Scriptures,  and  the 
extent  to  which  Gaelic  was  the  spoken  language  of  a  population 
of  171  parishes  ascertained  b)-  the  census  of  1821  to  contain 
416,000.  More  than  half  of  the  schedules  were  returned  full\- 
completed,  and    may  be   taken   as   fairl)'   representative  of  the 


1 88  THIRD   PERIOD.     S.P.C.K.   SCHOOLS  [CH. 

whole.  They  showed  that  one  half  of  all  ages  above  eight  years 
could  not  read,  that  one  third  of  all  the  families  had  no  copies  of 
the  Scriptures,  that,  excluding  Caithness,  Orkney  and  Shetland, 
Gaelic  was  the  language  of  three-fourths  of  the  people,  that  one 
third  of  the  population  were  more  than  two  miles  distant  from  a 
school,  and  that  many  thousands  had  no  school  nearer  than  five 
miles.  These  figures  do  not  apply  to  Caithness,  Orkney  and 
Shetland  where  there  is  no  Gaelic,  and  where  education  is  fairly 
satisfactory. 

The  public  schools  at  this  time  were  as  under : 

Parish  schools      ...         ...         ...         •••         •••         ^7^ 

Society  for  propagating  Christian  Knowledge  134 

Gaelic  Society  of  Edinburgh     77 

„  „        of  Glasgow        ...         ...         •  • .  48 

„  „        of  Inverness      ...         ...         ...  65 

495' 
Taking   50   as   the   probable   average   attendance  we   have 
24,750  as  a  full  attendance.    But  with  a  population  of  416,000,  at 
one  in  eight  there  ought  to  be  52,000  for  a  full  attendance,  or 
more  than  double  the  actual  accommodation. 

Whatever  doubt  may  be  felt  as  to  the  strict  accuracy  of 
these  figures,  the  statistical  tables  accompanying  the  report 
make  it  clear,  that  comparatively  little  use  was  made  of  the 
language  the  people  knew  best  as  a  means  of  awakening  interest 
and  increasing  intelligence,  and  that  there  was  generally  a  want 
of  appliances  for  the  promotion  of  education  and  religion.  Over 
and  over  again  the  remarks  which  accompany  the  completed 
schedules  deplore  the  absence  of  Gaelic  teaching.  The  Act  of 
the  Privy  Council  in  1616  recommending  the  abolition  of  Gaelic 
as  a  source  of  "barbaritie"  had  been  too  faithfully  carried  out, 
and  was  still  a  hindrance  to  advancement. 

In  1 82 1  the  salaries  of  teachers  under  the  first  patent 
averaged  about  ;^I5,  in  some  cases  rising  higher  through  special 
mortifications  or  private  donations.  Salaries  under  the  second 
patent  for  teachers  of  spinning,  weaving  &c.  ranged  from  ^3 
and  £4  to,  in  a  few  cases,  £ii  and  £10. 

1  Mara/  Statistics  of  the  Highlands  and  Islands,  1826,  p.  28. 


XIII]         THE   SOCIETY   AND   THE   DISRUPTION   OF    1843  189 

The  annual  expenditure  in  payment  of  salaries  to  teachers, 
catechists,  and  missionaries  amounted  to  a  little  over  ;^4C)00. 

A  detailed  specimen  may  be  of  interest.  Subjoined  is  one 
for  1843,  which  may  be  taken  as  typical. 

150  schools  on  First  Patent  ...          ...          ...  ;^2358 

37  superannuated  teachers  on  First  Patent  439 

II  missionaries...          ...          ...          ...          ...  505 

39  catechists      ...          ...          ...          ...         ...  333 

102  schools  on  Second  Patent          ...          ...  521 

18  superannuated  teachers  on  Second  Patent  82 

Z4238 

After  the  Disruption  in  1843  ^^  extraordinary  meeting  of 
the  directors  was  called  on  June  13th,  at  which  it  was  resolved 
that  the  secretary  and  agent  of  the  Society  should  prepare  a 
report  on  the  extent  to  which  the  disruption  must  necessarily 
affect  the  operations  of  the  Society.  The  points  to  be  considered 
were  (i)  The  origin  and  constitution  of  the  Society;  (2)  The 
kind  of  connection  between  it  and  the  Established  Church ; 
(3)  The  practice  of  the  Society  in  reference  to  the  different 
classes  of  individuals  employed  by  them,  viz.  teachers,  cate- 
chists, and  missionaries. 

The  report  states  that  no  very  authentic  record  has  been 
kept  of  the  formation  of  the  Society.  It  is  a  long  and  carefully 
drawn  document.  We  cannot  give  more  than  a  summary  of 
several  important  points  with  which  it  deals. 

The  opinion  of  two  eminent  lawyers — the  Lord  Advocate 
Duncan  M'^Neill  and  Andrew  Rutherfurd — was  taken  as  to  the 
eligibility  of  persons  other  than  members  of  the  Established 
Church  for  service  under  the  Society.  They  agreed  in  recom- 
mending a  judicial  decision  and  the  raising  of  an  action  of 
declarator  so  .shaped  as  to  present  for  decision  all  the  impor- 
tant points'.  Mr  Rutherfurd  gave  a  separate  opinion  on  points 
about  which  he  did  not  concur  with  the  Lord  Advocate.  The 
case  was  taken  into  the  Court  of  Session  where  the  decision  was 
given  that  the  Society  for  propagating  Christian  Knowledge  was, 

'  Declarator  is  a  form  of  action  in  Scottish  law,  with  a  view  to  the  judicial 
establishment  and  declaration  of  a  fact. 


I90  THIRD   PERIOD.      S.P.C.K.    SCHOOLS  [CIl. 

by  its  constitution  and  by  the  terms  of  its  incorporation,  indis- 
solubly  associated  with  the  Established  Church,  and  that  it  was 
not  lawful,  nor  in  the  power  of  the  said  Society,  to  appoint 
teachers,  catechists  or  missionaries  who  did  not  belong  to  the 
Established  Church.     This  judgment  was  pronounced  in  1846. 

In  the  report  for  1847  it  will  be  seen  that  the  directors 
resolve  that  a  circular  be  prepared  and  sent  to  every  teacher  and 
catechist,  stating  the  import  and  effect  of  the  decision  of  the 
Court  of  Session,  and  giving  them  an  opportunity  of  saying 
whether  they  do  or  do  not  belong  to  the  Established  Church. 
The  circular  also  states  that  while  the  directors  regret  that 
circumstances  cause  them  to  dispense  with  the  services  of  those 
disqualified  they  wish  to  do  so  in  a  kindly  spirit,  and  agree  to 
give  half  a  year's  salary  to  the  teachers,  missionaries,  and 
catechists. 

They  also  promise  in  the  case  of  those  who,  from  advanced 
age  or  infirmity,  are  not  likely  to  find  other  employment,  and 
have  a  fair  claim  to  a  retiring  salary,  to  give  all  consideration  to 
applications  for  superannuation  allowances.  Copies  of  these 
resolutions  were  sent  to  the  minister  of  every  parish  where  the 
Society  had  any  branch  of  their  establishment'. 

The  vacancies  thus  caused  were  soon  filled  up.  In  25  cases 
where  the  teachers  had  become  disqualified  the  buildings  were 
withdrawn  from  the  Society  and  given  to  Free  Church  teachers. 
Fresh  buildings  were  supplied  by  other  proprietors,  and  the 
work  of  the  Society  was  not  seriously  interfered  with. 

The  more  specially  evangelistic  field  covered  by  missionaries 
and  catechists  at  home  and  abroad,  being  only  incidentally 
educational,  does  not  fall  to  be  dealt  with  here.  It  is  perhaps 
sufficient  to  say  that  the  reports  received  by  the  Society  bear 
that  the  funds  furnished  by  them  were  most  beneficially 
employed^. 

In  1848  all  salaries  below  ;^i8  were  raised  to  that  sum  in 
schools  on  the  first  patent.  Those  on  the  second  patent  were 
also  considerably  raised.  This,  though  it  involved  the  suppression 
of  some  schools,  had  become  imperative  from  the  higher  qualifi- 

^   Report  for   1847,  p.  xxx. 

"^  Report  for  1847,  pp.  xxxiv  to  xlv. 


XIII]       THE  society's  schools  from  1843  TO  1872        191 

cations  of  the  candidates  who  presented  themselves,  the  great 
destitution  that  had  prevailed  for  two  years,  and  the  decreased 
purchasing  power  of  money'. 

Between  1843  and  i860  the  number  of  schools  was  some- 
what reduced,  some  of  the  ground  having  been  taken  up  by  the 
Free  Church.  From  the  latter  date  to  1872  there  was  little 
change.  There  was  neither  relaxation  of  effort  nor  reduction  of 
expenditure.  The  amount  set  free  by  the  discontinuance  of 
some  schools  was  most  properly  employed  in  increasing  the 
salaries  of  the  schools  still  on  the  scheme.  The  annual  expendi- 
ture was  upwards  of  ^5000.  The  directors  having  no  definite 
knowledge  as  to  the  extent  to  which,  or  in  what  districts,  the 
Act  of  1872  would  affect  their  schools,  decided  not  to  make  any 
immediate  change.  In  the  course  of  the  next  eight  or  ten  years 
the  number  of  schools  was  greatly  reduced.  The  action  taken 
by  the  directors,  on  learning  from  the  opinion  of  counsel,  that  it 
was  not  competent  to  continue  schools  for  which  adequate 
provision  ought  to  be  made  out  of  the  rates,  was  eminently  wise, 
and  productive  of, excellent  results.  It  belongs  to  our  fourth 
period,  where  it  will  be  dealt  with. 

'  Report  for  1848,  p.  xliii. 


CHAPTER   XIV 

THIRD    PERIOD.     GENERAL   ASSEMBLY    AND 
SESSIONAL   SCHOOLS 

There  is  great  similarity  between  the  aims  of  the  Society 
for  the  propagation  of  Christian  Knowledge  and  the  General 
Assembly's  committee  for  "increasing  the  means  of  education 
and  religious  instruction  in  Scotland."  The  former  took  up  the 
work  more  than  a  hundred  years  before  the  latter,  and  had  in 
view  almost  exclusively  the  Highlands  and  Islands,  while  the 
latter  ultimately  took  in  the  whole  of  Scotland.  The  two  societies 
were  co-operators,  not  rivals.  The  enquiry  made  by  the  General 
Assembly  as  to  the  extent  of  necessary  effort  resulted  in  the 
discovery  that  of  the  i6  synods  of  the  Church  lo,  mostly  in  the 
south  and  west,  were  well  supplied  with  the  means  of  education, 
and  that  scarcely  any  individual  was  unable  to  read,  but  that  the 
other  six,  viz.  Argyle,  Glenelg,  Ross,  Sutherland,  Caithness, 
Orkney  and  Shetland,  containing  143  parishes,  had  most  urgent 
need  of  not  less  than  250  schools  \ 

It  is  surprising  to  find  Orkney  and  Shetland  mentioned  as 
one  of  these  six  synods.  In  a  report  on  the  Moral  Statistics  of 
the  Highlands  and  Islands  it  is  stated  that  in  Orkney  and 
Shetland  "education  is  almost  universale" 

It  is  probable  that  these  two  groups  of  islands  are  wrongly 
classed  as  destitute  of  education.  They  have  had  for  a  long 
time  trade  and  intercourse,  somewhat  irregular  and  infrequent, 
with  the  mainland  as  far  south  as  Leith,  and  they  were  not 
handicapped  by  having  Gaelic  as  their  language,  of  which  they 

'   General  Assembly  s  Education  Reports,  Vol.  I,  p.  i. 

2  Moral  Statistics  of  the  Highlands  and  Islands.     Inverness,  1826,  p.  27. 


CH.  XIV]  SUBJECTS   TAUGHT    IN    THE   SCHOOLS  193 

know  beiiifT  Norsemen  as  little  as  they  know  of  Chinese. 
A  statement  to  the  effect  that  the  number  of  uneducated 
persons  in  these  six  synods  was  deplorably  large,  accompanied 
by  a  circular  letter,  was  sent  to  every  minister  in  the  Church,  and 
brought  in  most  gratifying  contributions.  In  the  course  of  two 
years  the  fund  amounted  to  upwards  of  ;^5ooo  from  parish 
collections,  donations,  and  annual  subscriptions.  Appeals  were 
also  made  to  heritors  and  others  in  the  districts  where  schools 
were  needed  for  the  supply  of  school-house,  dwelling-house, 
garden,  fuel,  and  a  cow's  grass.  The  committee  were  in  1825 
ready  to  make  a  start. 

Teachers  were  chosen  with  great  care  as  to  qualifications  and 
character.  Salaries  of  ;^20  or  £2^  were  to  be  paid,  the  larger 
sum  to  teachers  who  could  give  instruction  in  advanced  branches. 
From  this  as  also  from  their  being  permitted  to  charge  the  same 
fees  as  parish  teachers,  it  is  evident  that  the  schools  were 
intended  to  be  of  a  higher  type  than  those  of  the  Society  for  the 
propagation  of  Christian  Knowledge.  In  many  of  them  mensura- 
tion, mathematics,  navigation,  and  Latin  were  by  and  by  taught. 
It  was  by  no  means  unusual,  where  from  any  cause  the  parish 
schoolmaster  was  unsatisfactory,  to  find  the  General  Assembly 
or  Free  Church  Sessional  School  surpassing  the  parish  school 
in  both  numbers  and  efficiency.  In  the  course  of  the  next 
three  years  the  number  of  schools  established  was  35,  70,  and  85 
respectively.  Their  unsectarian  character  is  shown  by  the  fact 
that  in  South  Uist  there  was  a  school  in  which  out  of  33  pupils 
all  but  five  were  Roman  Catholics. 

Another  evidence  of  the  fairly  advanced  education  is  that  in 
1854  there  were  52  teachers  who  held  government  certificates, 
and  that  in  27  schools  pupil  teachers  were  employed.  In  1843 
the  number  of  schools  on  the  Assembly's  list  was  146  with 
13,000  pupils.  In  1848  it  was  189  and  in  1873  it  reached  its 
maximum  of  302  ordinary,  and  130  sewing  schools. 

An  early  start  was  made  in  the  establishment  of  school 
libraries  supplied  with  books  of  a  useful  and  interesting  kind. 
The  stimulation  of  intelligence  resulting  from  this  is  referred  to 
in  the  annual  reports  in  terms  of  hearty  appreciation.  Notwith- 
standing all  that  had  been  done  during  the  first  ten  years  of  the 

K.  E.  13 


194  THIRD   PERIOD.      GENERAL   ASSEMBLY   SCHOOLS       [CH. 

existence  of  the  scheme  we  are  informed  that  "in  the  Highlands 
and  Islands  there  are  more  than  80,000  persons  above  six  years 
of  age  unqualified  to  read,  and  that  384  schools  are  still  required 
to  complete  the  means  of  elementary  education  in  the  High- 
landsV  In  the  Highlands  there  was,  and  is,  the  special 
difficulty  that  in  the  smaller  glens  there  are  not  children  enough 
within  walking  distance  of  any  school  wherever  situated.  In 
the  1 8th  century  when  the  population  was  at  its  largest  in  those 
districts,  the  crofters  were  wretchedly  poor,  and  the  children 
were  wanted,  when  still  very  young,  to  herd  the  sheep.  The 
little  girls  were  provided  by  thrifty  mothers  with  a  spindle,  with 
which  they  span  into  rough  worsted  the  tufts  of  wool  that  the 
sheep  left  on  the  bushes.  Out  of  this  they  knitted  stockings 
for  themselves,  which  of  course  were  needed  only  on  Sundays. 

Up  to  1837  the  General  Assembly  had  confined  their 
exertions  to  the  Highlands  and  Islands,  both  because  the  need 
there  was  greater,  and  the  means  at  their  disposal  forbade  a 
wider  range.  The  parliamentary  grant  of  ^^'10,000  to  aid  in  the 
erection  of  school-houses  in  the  poorer  districts  of  large  towns 
enabled  them  to  establish  schools  in  Glasgow,  Greenock,  and 
Nairn,  by  means  of  a  second  scheme  for  the  Lowlands^. 

Shortly  after  the  disruption  of  the  Established  and  formation 
of  the  Free  Church  it  was  stated  in  the  assembly  of  the  latter 
that  360  teachers  who  had  previously  held  office  in  parish. 
General  Assembly  or  S.P.C.K.  schools  had  joined  the  Free 
Church  I  It  was  necessary  to  make  provision  for  them  by  the 
erection  of  schools,  and  an  education  committee  was  formed, 
which  worked  with  such  vigour  and  success  that  in  1847  it  was 
announced  that  the  income  for  the  year  was  nearly  £  10,000,  and 
that  513  schools  were  receiving  direct  support  from  it.  In  1850 
the  number  had  risen  to  657  with  an  attendance  of  60,000  pupils. 
Meanwhile  two  Ladies'  Associations  for  promoting  education  in 
the  Highlands  came  to  the  aid  of  the  organisation  of  the  churches, 
one  connected  with  the  Church  of  Scotland,  and  the  other  with 
the  Free  Church.  They  did  much  useful  work  in  having  Gaelic 
reading  taught,  in  adding  to  the  number  of  schools  in  destitute 

1  Report  for  1834,  pp.  6  and  13.  ^  Report  for  1837,  pp.  24  and  57. 

3  Walker's  Chapters  from  the  History  of  the  Free  Church,  1895,  pp.  114—124. 


Xrv]  RELIGIOUS    TESTS   AND    INSTRUCTION  195 

districts,  in  supplying  clothing  to  the  children  whose  need  was 
greatest,  and  by  a  salary  of  i^20  enabling  the  teacher,  who  was 
often  a  student  for  the  ministry,  to  proceed  to  the  university. 
There  were  also  subscription  schools  supported  by  proprietors  or 
the  inhabitants  of  the  district,  and  a  few  private  adventure  schools 
some  of  which  were  needed  and  efficient. 

Between  1852  and  1859  several  Bills  were  introduced  into 
the  House  of  Commons,  which  had  for  their  object  the  abolition 
of  tests  and  the  opening  up  of  parish  schools  to  teachers  other  than 
members  of  the  Established  Church,  but  they  were  lost  in  the 
House  of  Lords.  At  last  the  Act  of  1861  was  passed  which 
slackened  theconnection  between  the  parish  school  and  the  Church, 
and  made  any  member  of  a  Presbyterian  church  eligible  as  teacher 
of  a  parish  school.  The  schools  established  by  the  committeer 
of  both  churches  at  the  promptings  partly  of  educational  zeal, 
and  partly  of  sectarian  jealousy,  in  many  cases  required,  and  in 
many  redundant  and  overlapping,  were  of  similar  type  and  did 
useful  work,  but  on  the  passing  of  the  Act  of  1872  they  gradually 
disappeared,  being  either  handed  over  to  the  school  Boards 
or  discontinued  as  unnecessary  when  the  Boards  erected  new 
premises. 

In  1879  all  the  teachers  of  both  classes  of  schools  had 
practically  disappeared  from  the  lists  of  the  Assemblies  of  both 
churches.  The  number  of  old  teachers  was  small,  and  the 
pensions  due  to  them  amounted  to  a  comparatively  small 
sum. 

Up  to  this  time  inspection  of  religious  instruction  was  offered 
to  Board  and  Assembly  schools  alike,  but  grants  for  excellence 
under  examination  were  for  some  time  confined  to  the  latter 
class.  The  response  made  by  the  Church  to  the  appeal  for 
funds  to  continue  these  grants  was  however  so  limited,  that 
payments  were  discontinued  to  all  but  the  schools  supported 
by  the  Society  for  propagating  Christian  Knowledge  in  Scotland. 
Inspection  however  was  still  offered  as  hitherto  to  all,  and  by 
many  taken  advantage  of. 

The  education  committees  were  now  free  to  confine  their 
attention  in  financial  matters  to  the  training  colleges,  to  which 
reference  will  be  made  in  a  subsequent  chapter. 

13—2 


CHAPTER    XV 

THIRD    PERIOD   (1696  to  1872).     PARISH    SCHOOLS 

Besides  the  schools  above  dealt  with  whose  aim  was  mainly 
the  promotion  of  elementary  education,  there  is  yet  another  class, 
the  parish  schools.  To  these  from  the  work  done  by  many  of  them 
in  higher  branches,  as  being  part  and  parcel  of  Knox's  scheme 
in  the  First  Book  of  Discipline,  tolerably  full  references  have 
been  made  in  dealing  with  the  burgh  schools  of  our  second 
period. 

Knox's  scheme,  though  very  partially  carried  out,  contained 
all  that  characterises  Scottish  education  from  1560  till  now.  He 
saw  the  necessity  of  compulsory  education  for  all,  of  provision 
being  made  by  bursaries  for  boys  of  promise,  who  required 
pecuniary  help  at  the  university,  and  the  propriety  of  boys  not 
apt  for  learning  betaking  themselves  to  useful  handicrafts.  As 
to  suitable  remuneration  for  teachers,  he  pawkily  remarked,  "It 
is  not  to  be  supposed  that  all  men  will  dedicate  themselves  and 
their  children,  that  they  luyke  for  no  worldlie  commoditie.  But 
this  cankered  nature  quhilk  we  bear  is  provokit  to  follow 
vertue,  when  it  seeth  honour  and  profeit  annexed  to  the  same." 

The  name,  parish  schools,  conveys  no  definite  idea  of  the 
very  varied  character  of  the  work  done  in  them,  depending,  as  it 
did,  on  local  and  other  conditions.  In  many  cases  the  instruction 
was  far  short  of  John  Knox's  conception,  and  little  more  than 
elementary.  In  others  it  was  sufficiently  advanced  to  entitle 
them  to  be  classed  among  secondary  schools,  as  being  fitted  to 
prepare  students  for  entering  the  junior  classes  in  the  university. 
This  though  imperfectly  realised  was  the  original  aim  of  the 
Scottish  parish  school,  and  was  never  lost  sight  of  in  all  the  acts 
passed  between  the  time  of  Knox  and  the  Act  of  1872,  the 


CH.  XV]        SUBJECTS   TAUGHT    IN    THE    PARISH   SCHOOLS         I97 

preamble  of  which  states  that  "it  is  desirable  to  amend  and 
extend  the  provisions  of  the  law  of  Scotland  on  the  subject  of 
education,  in  such  manner  that  the  means  of  procuring  efficient 
education  for  their  children  may  be  furnished  and  made  avail- 
able to  the  whole  people  of  Scotland."  We  have  confirmation  of 
this  in  Section  6^  of  that  act  "  Provided,  that  due  care  shall  be 
taken  by  the  Scotch  Education  Department,  in  the  construction 
of  such  minutes,  that  the  standard  of  education  which  now  exists 
in  the  public  schools  shall  not  be  lowered,  and  that,  as  far  as 
possible,  as  high  a  standard  shall  be  maintained  in  all  schools 
inspected  by  the  said  Department." 

It  is  important  again  to  point  out  that,  unlike  the  English 
Act  of  1870,  the  Act  of  1872  contains  no  such  expression  as 
elementary  education,  and  further  that,  incredible  as  it  may  seem, 
it  is  the  fact  that  all  the  subjects  till  lately  required  for  the 
Cambridge  'Little-Go'  examination  were  at  the  end  of  the 
1 8th  century  in  some  districts  not  seldom  taught  in  village 
parish  schools. 

It  cannot  however  be  denied  that  there  is  a  darker 
side  to  the  picture  in  respect  of  both  teaching  and  accommoda- 
tion. The  records  of  Kirk  Sessions  pretty  much  all  over  the 
country  during  the  whole  of  the  iSth  century  contain  constant 
references  to  schools  vacant  and  teachers  apparently  half 
starved.  In  1735  there  were  in  Ayrshire  twelve  parishes  in 
which  there  was  no  school^  and  in  the  Highlands  in  1758  there 
were  175  parishes  in  which  there  was  neither  school  nor  school- 
master, churches,  barns,  byres  and  stables  often  doing  duty  as 
schools. 

While  it  is  impossible  to  make  even  an  approximate  com- 
parison of  the  purchasing  power  of  money  then  and  now,  and  it 
is  true  that  food  and  household  requisites  were  much  cheaper  then 
than  they  are  at  present,  there  can  be  no  doubt  that  for  more 
than  a  century  the  lot  of  the  teacher  was  hard,  and  his  whole 
environment  sordid  and  depressing-.    But  yet  when  the  necessaries 

'  Edgar's  Church  Life,  H,  75. 

"^  Little  meat  was  used.  The  pig  and  the  hen  were  important  contributors. 
Kailbrose,  porridge,  sowens,  and  oatcakes  were  the  usual  fare.  The  rural  school- 
master had  often  an  acre  or  two  of  land  and  a  cow,  from  the  produce  of  which  he  and 
his  family  largely  lived. 


198        THIRD   PERIOD   (1696— 1872).      PARISH    SCHOOLS         [CH. 

of  life  became  dearer,  as  they  gradually  did,  there  was  no 
additional  income  till  1803,  when  the  minimum  £\6.  ly.  $d. 
and  maximum  ;^22.  ^s.  ^d.  salaries  were  increased,  the  former 
being  doubled  and  the  latter  trebled,  and  it  was  provided  that 
there  should  be  a  revision  every  twenty-five  years. 

It  is  difficult  to  reconcile  this  state  of  matters  with  the 
position  claimed  for  Scotland  as  in  the  van  of  educated  nations 
in  consequence  of  its  possession  of  parish  schools.  And  yet 
reconciliation  of  a  kind  is  not  impossible.  The  country  was 
poor  and  distracted  by  civil  and  religious  discord.  The  heritors 
were  niggardly  and,  in  the  presence  of  events  that  affected  them 
in  a  closer  and  more  personal  way,  were  indifferent  about 
education.  But  the  Church  still  exercised  a  powerful  influence 
on  the  social  life  of  the  community,  and  encouraged  teachers  to 
persevere  in  their  ill-requited  labours.  With  the  Church  on  their 
side,  teachers  believed  that  the  grand  comprehensiveness  of 
Knox's  educational  aims  would  sooner  or  later  be  realised. 
Hence  the  undaunted  spirit  and  inexhaustible  patience  with 
which  they  continued  to  discharge  their  duty  under  the  most 
discouraging  conditions,  missing  no  opportunity  of  laying  hold 
of  boys  of  promise,  and  by  carefully  training  them  keeping  up  a 
connection  between  the  school  and  the  university. 

In  this  way  a  splendidly  conceived  scheme,  which  was  in 
danger  of  being  made  abortive  through  landlord  greed  and  open 
disregard  of  legal  enactment,  was  to  some  extent  saved  for  the 
country. 

There  are  few  things  in  the  history  of  education  more 
admirable  or  more  astonishing  than  the  results  that  followed  from 
the  co-operation  between  minister  and  teacher  at  this  time.  The 
close  connection  between  Church  and  school  which  had  come 
down  from  Roman  Catholic  times  was  maintained.  The  teacher 
was  elected  by  the  heritors  and  minister  of  the  parish,  and,  after 
swearing  allegiance  to  the  Sovereign,  had  to  satisfy  the  Presbytery 
as  to  his  ability  and  character.  He  was  required  to  sign  the 
Confession  of  Faith,  and  the  minister  was  appointed  superinten- 
dent of  the  school.  The  Presbytery  had  a  right  of  visitation 
which  they  exercised  up  to  the  passing  of  the  Act  of  1872. 
Strengthened    by  this    moral    support,  and    in   many  cases  by 


XV]  SUPPORT   OF   EDUCATION    I5V   THE    CHUKCH  199 

pecuniary  help  from  the  minister's  scanty  enough  stipend,  the 
teacher  toiled  on  for  a  salary  little  better  than  that  of  a  day- 
labourer,  lived  in  a  scandalously  insufficient  house,  taught  in  a 
building  or  shed  whose  only  characteristic  of  a  school  was 
often  simply  shelter  from  rain,  and  sometimes  not  even  that. 
But  the  work  went  on  with  more  or  less  success,  and  not  seldom 
so  well  that  boys  of  promise  entered  the  university,  carried  off 
bursaries,  and  rose  to  positions  of  commercial  or  professional 
respectability  and  even  eminence'. 

But  not  to  the  minister  and  teacher  alone  must  be  assigned 
the  credit  of  keeping  up  the  standard  of  education.  They 
could  not  have  succeeded,  had  they  not  been  backed  up  by 
what  may  perhaps  be  fairly  described  as  the  traditional  character 
of  the  Scot  for  the  self-reliance,  perseverance,  and  reasonable 
ambition,  by  which  so  many  have  earned  success.  Instances  of 
promotion  from  the  plough  to  the  pulpit  are  found  in  the  annals 
of  almost  every  parish.  Our  history  records  many  such  cases 
as  that  of  the  boy  who,  after  having  made  considerable  acquain- 
tance with  Latin,  was  compelled  by  the  poverty  of  his  parents  to 
leave  school  and  take  temporary  work  as  an  assistant  to  Lady 
Abercrombie's  gardener.  When  his  services  were  no  longer 
required,  the  lady  gave  him  a  guinea  and  said,  "Well!  Jock,  how 
are  you  going  to  spend  your  guinea .'' "  "  Oh,  my  Lady,"  he 
replied,  "  I've  just  made  up  my  mind  to  tak  a  quarter  o'  Greek, 
for  I  hadna  got  beyond  Latin  when  I  left  the  school."  This 
he  did  and  won  high  position  in  the  Church. 

In  the  first  quarter  of  the  19th  century  it  was  found  from  the 
enquiry  instituted  by  Brougham  in  18 18  that  some  parishes  in 
remote  districts  were  much  too  large  for  efficient  supervision  by 
one  man,  and  an  Act  was  passed  in  1824,  under  which  some  of 
these  very  large  parishes  were  divided,  and  called  parliamentary 
parishes-.  The  tradition  of  a  .school  in  every  parish  was  still 
kept   steadily    in   view,  and    in    1838  "An  act   to  facilitate   the 

^  In  country  districts  there  was  often  practically  no  other  career  for  a  "  Kid  o' 
pairts"  than  the  Churcli,  and  to  be  a  schoolmaster  formed  a  convenient  stepping- 
stone  therett).  About  50  years  ago  nearly  every  minister  in  the  Buchan  district  of 
Aberdeenshire  had  been  a  schoolmaster  earlier  in  his  career.  At  present  (190S)  there 
are  only  two  or  three,  and  they  are  oldish  men. 

'^  5  Geo.  IV,  c.  90. 


200        THIRD    PERIOD  (1696 — 1 872).      PARISH   SCHOOLS         [CH. 

foundation  and  endowment  of  additional  schools  in  Scotland  " 
was  passed.  All  that  was  demanded  from  the  heritors  was  the 
erection  of  a  school  and  schoolmaster's  house.  Government 
furnished  the  salary.  In  the  following  year  the  system  of 
government  inspection  and  grants  in  aid  was  instituted. 

That  there  was  great  need  for  this  act  must  be  evident  from 
what  has  been  stated  above.  It  was  an  attempt  by  those  keenly 
interested  in  it  to  carry  out  proposals  for  "the  virtuous  education 
and  godly  upbringing  of  the  youth  of  the  realm."  But  while 
religion  thus  occupied  a  prominent  place  in  the  programme, 
they  had  also  in  view  that  those  "apt  for  learning"  should  be 
feeders  of  the  universities.  Other  acts,  merely  supplementing 
or  amending  previous  acts,  were  passed  in  1845,  1854  ^"^  ^^57- 
A  much  more  important  act  was  that  of  1861  by  which  the 
salaries  were  increased,  the  minimum  to  ^35,  and  the  maximum 
to  £70.  The  teacher  was  no  longer  required  to  sign  the 
Confession  of  Faith  and  the  Formula  of  the  Church  of  Scotland, 
but  to  make  a  general  declaration  that  he  would  not  teach  any- 
thing opposed  to  the  authority  of  the  Bible  or  Shorter  Catechism. 
The  examination  of  his  qualification  was  transferred  from  the 
Presbytery  to  examiners  appointed  by  the  courts  of  the  four 
universities  within  their  respective  areas.  The  power  of  dis- 
missal for  neglect  of  duty  or  inefficiency  was,  after  consideration 
of  H.  M,  Inspector's  report,  put  into  the  hands  of  the  heritors 
and  minister  of  each  parish  ;  and  for  immorality  or  cruelty  into 
the  hands  of  the  sheriff  of  the  county.  It  is  evident  from  this 
that  the  tenure  of  office  was  ad  vitani  ant  culpam. 

Notwithstanding  the  amendments  and  extensions  on  the 
lines  of  the  Act  of  1696  introduced  by  the  Act  of  1803  and  the 
others  referred  to,  it  cannot  be  claimed  that  the  scheme  of  a 
school  in  every  parish  was  carried  out  all  over  Scotland  to  a 
satisfactory  extent  even  up  to  the  middle  of  the  19th  century. 
Meanwhile  the  area  of  state-aided  schools  widened.  Many 
teachers  who  had  not  dreamt  of  becoming  certificated  were 
induced   to  aim   at  and  obtain   the  coveted  parchments     The 

^  A  teacher  qualified  to  serve  in  a  state-aided  school  received  a  parchment 
certificate,  on  which  an  entry  as  to  his  practical  skill  was  annually  recorded.  Such 
entries  have  for  some  years  been  discontinued. 


XV]  STATE   AID   TO   THE   PARISH    SCHOOLS  201 

examination  was  found  to  be  fairly  within  the  reach  of  a  person 
of  average  ability  and  education.  There  were  as  yet  no  lions  in 
the  way  in  the  shape  of  standards,  examination  schedules,  and 
blue  pencils.  It  came  to  be  known  that  the  government 
examination  of  the  school,  if  somewhat  more  exact  and  testing 
than  the  genial,  and  sometimes  perfunctory  examination  by  the 
Presbytery,  imposed  no  restriction  on  freedom  of  action  ;  that 
teachers  were  allowed  within  pretty  wide  limits  to  do  what 
seemed  right  in  their  own  eyes,  and  were  only  expected  to  give 
fair  consideration  to  well-meant  suggestions  ;  that  there  was  no 
iron  rule  as  to  subjects  to  be  taught  or  methods  to  be  followed, 
and  that  there  was  elbow-room  and  free  play  for  both  teacher 
and  inspector. 

Along  with  this  freedom  and  as  correctives  of  its  possible 
abuse  teachers  had  the  government  report  to  look  to,  the  entry 
on  the  certificate,  its  revision  every  fifth  year,  and  probable 
elevation  to  a  higher  grade,  and  greater  money  value.  A  fixed 
augmentation  grant  from  ;^io  to  ^30,  according  to  the  grade  of 
the  certificate,  was  paid  directly  to  the  teacher,  who  was  thus  a 
servant  of  the  state  and  not  as  now  the  servant  of  the  school 
board  or  managers.  The  result  of  all  this  was  that,  in  quite  a 
natural  way,  reasonable  effort  in  the  discharge  of  duty  was 
secured.  These  grants  were  conditionally  payable  on  the 
voluntary  contributions  and  the  amount  of  fees  being  together 
equal  to  the  grant,  the  principle  being  that  government  would 
help  those  who  helped  themselves.  To  poor  outlying  districts 
more  favourable  terms  were  given. 

The  process  of  bringing  the  parochial  and  other  old  teachers 
into  the  ranks  of  the  certificated  was  for  some  time  slow.  Of 
1049  parish  schools  only  124  were  on  the  government  list  in 
1854.  This  was  to  be  expected.  Many  of  the  parish  teachers 
were  men  of  mature  years,  and  had  passed  the  age — if  there  be 
any  such  age — at  which  examinations  are  a  delight.  Many  had 
had  successful  experience,  and,  being  probably  somewhat  rusty 
in  technical  details,  disliked  imperilling  their  well-earned  repu- 
tation on  the  chance  of  failure  in  an  examination  for  which  the}- 
entertained  scant  respect. 

The  path  was  smoothed  by  the  department  granting,  with- 


202         THIRD    PERIOD   ( 1 696— 1 872).      PARISH    SCHOOLS        [CH. 

out  examination,  certificates  graded  in  height  according  as  the 
applicants  had  been  teachers  for  a  certain  number  of  years,  were 
of  a  certain  age,  were  graduates  or  members  of  council  of  a 
Scottish  university,  and  even  when  these  latter  qualifications 
were  absent.  But  evidence  as  to  character  and  successful 
experience  was  demanded  from  all. 

The  rage  for  examination  was  scarcely  past  the  incipient 
stage.  The  inspector  had  only  in  widely  distant  spots  begun  to 
trouble.  In  1850  there  was  only  one  such  officer.  In  i860 
there  were  eight.  And  other  two  spent  a  month  or  two  inspec- 
ting Episcopal  and  Roman  Catholic  schools,  inspection  being  at 
this  time  denominational.  Parents  were  often  present  at  these 
examinations  in  considerable  numbers.  This  parental  interest 
continued  in  country  districts  up  to  1872,  the  ministers  frequently 
joining  hands  with  the  inspector,  and  taking  a  share  of  the 
examination  in  religious  knowledge.  Thereafter  it  almost 
entirely  ceased. 

As  the  personal  grants  to  teachers  were  either  paid  or 
refused  in  full,  one  can  understand  that  refusals  occurred  only  in 
cases  of  very  marked  inefficiency.  In  view  of  this  and  of  the 
steady  increase  of  schools  on  the  government  list,  and  also  (as 
it  was  said)  because  of  inefficiency  in  English  schools,  the 
Revised  Code  with  its  payment  by  results  was,  in  1862,  devised  as 
a  remedy.  Payment  by  results  had  a  fine  commercial  ring,  but 
the  remedy  was  illusory,  inherently  mechanical  and  therefore 
bad ;  and  though  only  formally  applied  to  Scotland,  threw  back 
our  education  for  at  least  ten  years.  It  did  some  good  by 
increasing  regularity  of  attendance  and  improving  to  some 
extent  instruction  in  the  three  R's,  but  it  did  less  than  nothing 
for  education.  It  is  scarcely  credible  that,  for  five  of  the  years  of 
its  miserable  existence,  the  elementary  schools  of  England  had 
for  sustenance  nothing  but  the  three  R's  in  their  barest  forms. 
Intelligence,  grammar,  composition,  geography,  and  history  were 
not  results  worth  paying  for,  and  were  consequently  not  taught. 
This  was  only  to  a  certain,  but  quite  appreciable,  extent  true  of 
Scottish  schools,  which  were  exempted  from  the  financial  opera- 
tion of  the  Revised  Code.  But  notwithstanding  this  exemption 
its   influence   on   the  weaker  class   of  teachers   was   pernicious. 


XV]  EFFECTS   OF    PAYMENT    BY    RESULTS  203 

Percentage  of  pass,  as  being  the  most  quotable  test  of  efficiency, 
was  by  many  the  principal,  and  by  some  the  only  aim.  The 
clever  child  being  sure  to  pass  was  allowed  to  mark  time,  while 
the  dullard  was  mercilessly  and  injuriously  drilled.  The  aim  of 
many  teachers  was  a  low  dead  level  for  all,  a  thing  impossible  in 
school,  and,  even  if  possible  in  school-life,  certain  to  end  there. 
No  amount  of  bolstering  will  permanently  or  profitably  prop  up 
either  the  schoolboy  or  the  man  who  is  inherently  stupid  or 
persistently  lazy.  There  are  in  every  school  pupils  who  are  fit 
only  to  be  hewers  of  wood  or  drawers  of  water.  Let  these  by 
all  means  have  as  much  education  as  they  can  assimilate,  in 
order  to  sweeten  their  lives  and  make  them  useful  citizens. 
There  are  on  the  other  hand  few  schools  in  which  there  are  not 
some — no  doubt  a  very  small  proportion — who  show  that  they 
are  fit  for  more  than  elementary  education.  Surely  these  ought 
to  have  at  least  their  fair  share  of  attention.  It  is  even  arguable 
that  if  the  tradition  which  has  given  Scotland  a  distinguished 
place  among  educated  nations  is  to  be  maintained,  it  is  on 
political  and  patriotic  grounds  expedient,  that  they  should  have, 
where  possible,  more  than  an  equal  share,  the  best  soil  being 
thus  carefully  cultivated,  while  even  the  poorest  is  not  allowed 
to  run  to  waste. 

It  is  beyond  question  that  the  Revised  Code  demoralised  many 
teachers  by  putting  them  on  vicious  educational  lines.  During 
the  ten  years  before  1872  much  of  the  instruction  was  given 
with  the  limited  range  of  a  machine,  and  with  a  total  absence  of 
spontaneity  and  intellectual  stimulus.  Many  teachers  would 
neither  have  expressed  nor  felt  regret  though  mathematics  and 
classics  were  passed  over,  who  formerly  would  have  invited 
examination  of  these  higher  branches  with  something  akin  to 
ostentatious  but  healthy  pride.  But  they  were  not  without 
excuse.  They  yielded  to  a  temptation  by  no  means  slight.  It 
took  a  strong  man  to  refuse  to  worship  the  percentage  divinity 
when  the  majority  of  school  managers  made  a  high  percentage 
the  channel  of  promotion.  For  a  considerable  time  even  after 
the  Act  of  1872  many  school  boards  also  treated  percentage  of 
pass  as  the  true  measure  of  efficiency.  A  comparison  of  this 
state  of  matters  with  the  widening  of  the  educational  horizon 


204        THIRD    PERIOD   (1696 — 1 872).      PARISH   SCHOOLS        [CH. 

which  followed  the  establishment  of  a  separate  code  for  Scotland 
in  1873,  and  which  continued  with  gradual  improvements  for 
the  following  thirteen  years,  shows  history  repeating  itself  by  a 
stead}'  return  towards  the  aim  of  the  old  parish  schools,  with  the 
important  difference  that,  combined  with  the  effort  to  maintain 
a  high  standard  for  those  fit  to  profit  by  it,  there  is  security  that 
pupils  of  duller  mood  are  not  sent  empty  away — one  of  the 
failings  chargeable  against  a  good  many  of  the  old  parish 
schools. 

In  the  Reminiscences  of  Dr  Findlater,  for  some  time 
editor  of  Chambers'  Encyclopaedia,  we  have  a  description  of  the 
parish  school  in  Aberdeenshire  in  which  he  was  taught,  in  the 
first  quarter  of  the  19th  century.  The  contrast  between  the 
past  and  present  school-house  is  exceedingly  striking.  "  The 
dimensions  were  34  by  14,  and  the  height  of  the  side  walls 
6  feet.  A  portion  of  the  room  was  partitioned  off,  along  each 
side  stood  a  long  flat  table  or  desk  with  a  form  attached  to  each 
side,  so  that  the  scholars  sat  facing  each  other.  A  considerable 
space  was  thus  left  vacant  in  the  middle  of  the  floor,  and  there 
stood  the  master's  chair  without  any  desk.  The  fire  burned  on 
an  open  hearth  :  there  was  no  flue,  the  smoke  issuing  by  the  usual 
lum  (chimney).  A  part  of  the  school-room  space  was  taken  up 
with  a  pile  of  peats.     This  store  was  kept  up  by  each  scholar 

bringing  a  peat  every  morning  under  his  arm The  floor  was 

of  earth,  and  usually  well  worn  into  holes.  The  duty  of  remov- 
ing the  ashes,  kindling  the  fire,  and  sweeping  the  floor  devolved 
on  a  censor  appointed  weekly.  The  sweeping  was  mostly 
confined  to  the  middle  of  the  floor.  The  dust  under  the  desks 
was  rarely  disturbed,  and  generally  lay  about  an  inch  deep.... 
I  do  not  think  that  I  ever  heard  Mr  Craik  (the  schoolmaster) 
ask  the  meaning  of  a  word  or  sentence,  or  offer  to  explain 
the  one  or  the  other.... In  the  curriculum  of  the  Aberdour 
School  neither  grammar,  history  nor  geography  formed  a  part." 

A  school  appliance  probably  known  only  in  Aberdeenshire 
is  perhaps  worthy  of  mention,  viz.  the  "  queelin  (cooling)  stane." 
This  was  a  smooth  flat  stone  upon  which  offenders  were  made  to 
sit  after  their  unprotected  and  overheated  cuticle  had  been  sub- 
jected to   the   discipline   of  the   birch   or  tawse.     Whether  the 


XV]  A   COUNTRY   SCHOOL   OF   THE    IQTII    CENTURY  20$ 

cooling  stone  was  meant  as  an  additional  punishment,  or  as  a 
grateful  alleviation  of  suffering  must  be  left  to  conjecture. 

On  one  occasion  an  obstreperous  boy,  who  however  seemed 
to  have  had  the  saving  sense  of  humour,  was,  after  the  arrange- 
ment of  his  garments  necessary  to  the  punishment  being 
effectively  administered,  placed  on  the  back  of  the  school  porter 
who  happened  to  wear  a  yellow  wig.  The  boy  seeing  no  other 
protection  seized  the  wig,  and  clapped  it  upon  the  part  of  his 
body  that  was  specially  to  suffer.  Cooling  stones  are  no  longer 
in  use,  but  they  existed  in  some  Aberdeen  schools  till  the  19th 
century.  {The  Past  and  Present  of  AbcrdeensJiirc,  by  Rev. 
Dr  Paul,  1881,  pp.  81—84.) 

School-houses,  teaching  and  discipline  of  this  kind  th(High 
more  rare  were  not  unknown  in  the  middle  of  the  19th  century. 
Better  days  however  were  not  far  off.  The  offer  of  government 
grants  and  the  Act  of  1861,  which  further  increased  the  emolu- 
ments, and  made  Presbyterians  of  any  denomination  eligible  for 
the  office  of  parish  schoolmaster,  brought  into  the  profession 
men  of  higher  education  and  more  thorough  training.  This 
again  was  followed  by  the  Act  of  1872  and  the  introduction  of  a 
separate  code  for  Scotland,  with  the  result  that  the  general 
intellectual  condition  of  the  average  school  soon  compared  most 
favourably  with  what  were  somewhat  thoughtlessly  called  the 
'  good  old  times.' 

In  respect  of  equipment,  organisation  and  classification  the 
improvement  was  very  striking.  The  rooms  were,  except  in 
outlying  districts,  fairly  suitable  in  size  and  well  ventilated,  the 
discipline  cheerful,  and  the  spirit  of  work  satisfactory. 

Schoolmasters'  Widows'  Fund. 

This  is  perhaps  as  suitable  a  place  as  any  other  for  referring 
to  a  fund  which  had  its  origin  early  in  the  19th  century. 
Though  it  is  still  in  e.xistence,  the  purposes  which  it  was 
intended  to  serve  bulk  much  more  largel\'  in  the  third  than  in 
the  fourth  period  of  our  subject. 

In  I  Ho  I  a  little  company  of  schoolmasters  met  in  a  Fife- 
shire  village  and  resolved  to  establish  a  fund  for  the  "  relief  of 


206      THIRD  PERIOD  (1696 — 1872).      PARISH  SCHOOLS      [CH.  XV 

widows  and  children  of  Burgh  and  Parochial  Schoolmasters  in 
Scotland."  In  the  following  year  the  fund  was  constituted  by 
Act  of  Parliament,  and  all  Burgh  and  Parochial  Schoolmasters 
appointed  thereafter  were  compelled  to  contribute  to  it  sums 
varying  from  one  to  five  guineas  annually,  according  to  the  value 
of  the  annuities  they  wished  to  purchase.  Thirty-one  years  later 
schoolmasters  oi  quoad  sacra  parishes  became  eligible  for  member- 
ship, provided  they  received  what  was  regarded  as  adequate 
salaries  from  the  Heritors  or  Town  Councils.  Schoolmasters 
in  other — such  as  Free  Church — schools  were  not  admitted  as 
contributors. 

The  fund  was  wisely  and  economically  administered.  At 
the  passing  of  the  Act  of  1872  which  made  contributions  to  it 
by  future  teachers  non-obligatory,  and  thereby  struck  its  death- 
blow, there  were  1332  contributors;  the  annual  income  was 
nearly  i^Sooo ;  the  annuities  paid  amounted  to  ;i^5300,  and  the 
capital  to  over  i^i  17,000.  In  its  centenary  year  (1901)  the 
number  of  contributors  had  fallen  to  249,  and  the  capital  to 
£c)Of>oo.  Two  years  later  the  capital  had  been  reduced  to 
;^83,ooo  and  provision  was  then  made,  by  substantially  increas- 
ing the  annuities,  for  its  further  reduction.  It  is  quite  evident 
that  in  a  few  years  steps  must  be  taken  to  wind  up  the  fund, 
due  care  being  taken  to  guarantee  the  annuities  of  all  bene- 
ficiaries. It  is  greatly  to  be  regretted  that  a  fund  so  ably 
managed,  and  so  beneficent  in  its  operations  was  not  extended 
in  1872  to  include  at  least  all  the  male  teachers  of  Scotland. 
The  annuities  purchased  by  its  members  were  not  large,  but 
they  were  sufficient  to  tide  over  a  period  of  strain  and  stress  in 
many  a  stricken  household. 


CHAPTER   XVI 

THIRD    PERIOD   (1696  to   1858).     STOW   AND 
TRAINING  OF   TEACHERS 

No  history  of  Scottish  education  could  be  complete  which 
did  not  make  reference  to  the  distinguished  part  played  by 
David  Stow  in  connection  with  the  training  of  teachers.  So 
early  as  the  middle  of  the  i6th  century  Mulcaster,  Headmaster 
of  the  Merchant  Taylors'  School,  London,  was  a  zealous  advocate 
for  the  systematic  training  of  teachers,  but  he  seems  to  have  got 
no  adequate  support.  About  two  centuries  later  the  need  of 
such  institutions  was  felt  in  France  and  Germany.  In  both,  and 
especially  in  the  latter,  their  establishment  spread  rapidly,  but  it 
was  not  till  the  beginning  of  the  19th  century,  that  British 
educationists  followed  suit  in  the  persons  of  Bell  and  Lancaster, 
with  their  shortlived  and  hurriedly  conceived  monitorial  systems. 
Neither  had  the  elements  of  permanence,  but  in  at  least  one  way 
they  did  good  educational  service  by  directing  public  attention 
to  what  should  have  been  discovered  long  before,  viz.  that  in 
education,  as  in  every  branch  of  skilled  labour,  there  are  good 
and  bad  systems  ;  that  the  best  results  can  only  be  obtained  by 
the  employment  of  good  methods  ;  and  that  for  this,  as  for 
every  other  profession,  those  who  are  to  practise  it  should  be 
skilfully  trained.  While  it  is  true  that  the  Acts  of  Parliament 
passed  early  in  the  17th  century  secured  not  everywhere,  but  in 
many  parts  of  Scotland,  teachers  of  attainments  sufficiently  high 
to  prepare  their  best  pupils  for  direct  entrance  into  the  Univer- 
sity, there  was  as  yet  no  scientific  training  based  on  principles 
having  for  their  aim  not  mere  instruction,  but  mental,  moral, 
and  physical  development.     For  this  we  had  to  wait  more  than 


208    THIRD  PERIOD.     STOW  AND  TRAINING  OF  TEACHERS     [CH. 

a  century  and  a  half,  when  it  was  obtained  through  the  untiring 
Christian  zeal  of  David  Stow.  Keenly  interested  in  mission 
work  he  devoted  to  it  the  whole  of  his  leisure  time  for  five  years 
(1811  — 1816). 

His  first  effort  in  education  took  the  direction  of  starting 
Sabbath  schools  in  one  of  the  most  degraded  districts  of  Glasgow. 
He  soon  saw  that  this  was  not  enough  ;  that  well-taught  day 
schools  were  urgently  needed  ;  and  that,  to  obtain  them,  he 
must  have  teachers  who  were  more  or  less  fully  acquainted  with 
the  nature  of  the  child,  with  good  methods,  and  with  the 
principles  on  which  these  methods  were  based.  For  some  years 
Stow's  thoughts  on  education  were  maturing  and  taking  scien- 
tific shape.  He  did  not  start  with  a  preconceived  theory,  but 
based  his  system  on  the  observed  results  of  experience.  The 
kernel  of  his  system  was  that  to  instruct  was  one  thing,  to 
educate  another  and  much  higher  thing.  It  was  not  enough  to 
store  the  memory  with  facts  which  the  learner  could  use  with 
mechanical  accuracy  within  a  limited  range.  Beyond  this  it 
was  essential  that  knowledge  should  be  acquired  in  such  a 
way  that  the  intellect  was  strengthened  for  making  further 
advances  in  whatever  direction  taste,  expediency,  or  necessity 
might  suggest.  To  quote  his  own  words,  "  The  training  of  a 
child  in  its  intellectual  powers  is  not  so  much  the  affording 
instruction,  as  it  is  giving  to  the  mind  a  habit  of  thinking,  and  of 
thinking  correctly.  The  same  may  be  said  in  regard  to  the 
moral  affections  ;  it  is  that  of  training  the  child  to  feel  aright — 
and  also  in  regard  to  the  bodily  organs,  that  of  training  to  the 
habits  of  acting  aright^"  Or  again,  "  Intellectual  Teaching  may 
be  stated  as  the  storing  of  the  memory  and  understanding  with 
knowledge  ;  but  habituating  the  mind  to  reflect  upon  and  to 
digest  the  subjects  presented  is  Training'^!' 

Bell  and  Lancaster  aimed  only  at  elementary  education. 
Bell  said,  "  It  is  not  proposed  that  the  children  of  the  poor  be 
educated  in  an  expensive  way,  or  even  taught  to  write  or  cipher." 
Stow  had  higher  aims  than  this,  but  he  had  the  stereotyped 
methods  of  parish  and  burgh  teachers  to  fight  against,  who,  so 

1  Stow's  Training,  p.  ■20,  1836  ed. 
^  Stow's  Training,  p.  26. 


XVI]  THE   GLASGOW   EDUCATIONAL   SOCIETY  209 

far  as  system  was  concerned,  were  each  man  a  law  unto  himself, 
and  treated  with  ridicule  the  idea  of  training  bein^r  necessary  for 
the  teaching  of  such  elementary  subjects  as  arithmetic,  history 
and  geography. 

In  1826  he  formed  the  Glasgow  Infant  School  Society,  and 
with  the  assistance  of  its  members  opened  a  school  for  children 
under  six  years  of  age,  which  was  conducted  with  great  success. 
Exhibitions  of  Mr  Stow's  methods  were  given  to  crowded  meetings 
in    Edinbureh  and  elsewhere.     Public   interest  was  thoroughly 
aroused  in  many  of  the  leading  towns  in  Scotland.     Before  long 
two  large  classrooms  were  secured  in  the  Saltmarket  for  older 
pupils  as  well.     The  attendance  soon  rose  to  200.     The  system 
steadily  gained    ground    and    during   the   next   ten    years    100 
teachers  received  more  or  less  training  in  the  principles  advocated 
by  Mr  Stow.     The  Glasgow  Educational  Society  was  reconsti- 
tuted, took  over  the  two   model  schools  then  established,  and 
advertised  for  a  Rector.     We  have  evidence  of  the  interest  taken 
in  the  new  movement  from  Carlyle's  offering  himself  as  a  candi- 
date for  the  Rectorship.     He  sends  a  letter  to  his  brother  John 
informing  him  of  his  candidature  with  "If  I  stir  in  any  public 
matter,  it  must  be  this  of  national  education."     He  did  not  get 
the  appointment.     It  is  difficult  to  say  what  sort  of  a  Rector  he 
would  have  made,  but  that  he  had  sound  views  as  to  the  import- 
ance of  training  can  be  gathered  from  his  remarks  about  certain 
schoolmasters  who  "knew  syntax  enough,  and  of  the  human  soul 
thus  much,  that  it  had  a  faculty  called  memory,  and  could  be 
acted    on  through  the  muscular  integument  by  appliances  of 
birch-rods.     Alas,  so  is  it  everywhere,  so  will  it  ever  be  ;  till  the 
hodman  is  discharged,  or  reduced  to  hod-bearing,  and  an  architect 
is  hired,  and  on  all  hands  fitly  encouraged  ;  till  communities  and 
individuals  discover,  not  without   surprise,   that   fashioning   the 
souls  of  a  generation  by  knowledge  can  rank  on  a  level  with 
blowing  their  bodies  to  pieces  by  gunpowder^" 

Success  marked  the  career  of  these  model  schools  which  in 
1836  were  formally  instituted  as  the  Glasgow  Dundas  Vale 
Training  College,  the  first  institution  of  the  kind  in  the  United 
Kingdom.       Battersea    College   and    Borough    Road    Training 

1  Sartor  Re  sarins,  p.  65,  1858  ed. 
K.  E.  14 


2IO    THIRD  PERIOD.     STOW  AND  TRAINING  OF  TEACHERS    [CH. 

College,  London,  followed  in  1840  and  1842.  It  seems  fair  to 
claim  for  the  Infant  School  started  in  1826  the  honour  of  being 
the  first  step  in  the  training  of  Scottish  teachers. 

The  Directors  of  the  Glasgow  Educational  Society  were  any- 
thing but  parochial  in  their  aims.     Both  they  and  Mr  Stow  had 
resolved  to  awaken  their  fellow-countrymen  to  the  educational 
wants  of  Scotland,  and  maintain  a  Normal  Seminary  on  an  unde- 
nominational basis  for  the  education  of  teachers  in  the  most 
improved  modes  of  intellectual  and  moral  training.     The  college 
was    built    at    great    expense    and    financial    difficulties  arose. 
Voluntary  subscriptions  were  insufficient  to  meet  the  expendi- 
ture.    An  appeal  was  accordingly  made  to  the  Privy  Council  on 
Education,  which  was  appointed  in  1839,  and  had  in  its  hands  the 
administration  of  Grants.     The  appeal  was  answered  in  1841  by 
an  offer  of  ;^5000  to  reduce  the  debt  on  the  building,  and  ;^500  a 
year  to  meet  current  expenses,  the  General  Assembly  contributing 
the    same    annual    amount,    on    condition    that    the    site    and 
buildings  were  conveyed  to  the  General  Assembly  of  the  Church 
of  Scotland,  in  trust  for  the  maintenance  of  Model  and  Training 
Schools.      This    condition,    by    introducing    a    denominational 
element  into  what  was  meant  by  its  founders  to  be  a  national 
institution  and  of  universal  application,  was  at  first  objected  to. 
The  Privy  Council  however  refused  to  yield,  and  the  offer  was 
somewhat   unwillingly  accepted  as  the  only  alternative  to  the 
probable  surrender  of  a  scheme,  which  had  been,  with  admirable 
devotion,  ability,  and  success,  so  far  carried  out,  and  was  so  full 
of  promise  for  the  education  of  the  country. 

Meanwhile  Stow's  system  had  taken  root  elsewhere  than  in 
Glasgow.  It  is  unnecessary  to  enter  into  details  which  in  general 
character  were  the  same  as  those  already  mentioned.  Suffice  it 
to  say  that  so  early  as  1 824  an  Education  Committee  was  appointed 
by  the  General  Assembly  of  the  Church  of  Scotland,  under  whose 
superintendence  teachers  received  a  short  training  on  Stow's  lines 
in  a  Sessional  School  in  Edinburgh ;  that  eleven  years  later  a 
Training  department  was  introduced  into  the  Sessional  School, 
which  was  now  called  the  General  Assembly's  Normal  Seminary 
in  Edinburgh.  Further,  when  this  school  became  too  small,  the 
Privy  Council,  on   being  appealed  to  in   1841,  made  the  same 


XVl]  THE   FIRST   TRAINING   COLLEGES  211 

grants    as   to    Glasgow — ^^5000    towards    building    and    ;i^5(X) 
annually  for  current  expenses. 

These  negotiations  were  little  more  than  completed  when  the 
ecclesiastical  Disruption  occurred  in  1843.  As  the  Training 
Colleges  had  been  placed  under  the  Superintendence  of  the 
Church  of  Scotland,  the  General  Assembly  thought  they  had  no 
choice  but  to  insist  that  all  the  teachers  of  schools  under  their 
management  should  be  members  of  that  Church.  It  turned  out 
that  Stow  and  almost  all  his  colleagues  had  joined  the  Free 
Church,  and  notwithstanding  their  earnest  request  to  be  allowed 
to  retain  their  posts  in  an  institution  open  to  students  of  all 
denominations  for  the  establishment  of  which  they  had  toiled  so 
zealously,  they  were  obliged  to  leave  it.  To  Stow  especially, 
who  had,  with  a  devotion  almost  unparalleled,  given  up  thirty 
years  of  his  life  to  a  scheme  which  seemed  triumphantly 
successful,  the  experience  must  have  been  extremely  bitter. 

Disappointed  but  not  disheartened  Stow  and  his  Directors 
accompanied  by  the  staff,  students,  and  pupils  who  adhered  to 
the  Free  Church,  marched  in  procession  in  1845  from  Dundas 
Vale  to  temporary  premises,  where  the  work  was  carried  on  till 
a  handsome  college  was  erected  in  Cowcaddens  at  a  cost  of 
;^io,ooo,  the  Privy  Council  contributing  ^^3000.  With  this 
college  Stow  had  a  close  connection  till  his  death  in   1864. 

In  Edinburgh  the  circumstances  and  action  of  those  in- 
terested were  in  all  essential  points  the  same  as  in  Glasgow. 
Temporary  buildings  were  occupied  by  the  Free  Church  till 
1848  when  Moray  House,  formerly  the  residence  of  the  Earls 
of  Moray,  was  secured  and  adapted  to  suit  the  requirements 
of  a  model  school  and  Training  College,  the  Privy  Council 
contributing  i^3000  as  in  G]a.sgow. 

There  is  room  for  difference  of  opinion  as  to  the  expediency 
of  placing  the  Training  Colleges  under  the  superintendence  of 
the  Church  of  Scotland.  The  connection  between  church  and 
school  had  been,  from  the  earliest  times,  so  close  that  such  a 
policy  was  natural  and  intelligible.  The  ecclesiastical  condition 
of  the  country  must  be  taken  into  account.  It  must  be  borne 
in  mind  that  the  Disruption  was  not  yet  upon  us,  and  probably 
not   anticipated.       Had    it    already    come,    Stow's   aim    at    the 

14—2 


212    THIRD  PERIOD.     STOW  AND  TRAINING  OF  TEACHERS    [CH. 

establishment  of  a  national  system  on  purely  undenominational 
lines  would  probably  have  been  realised  ;  great  waste  of  time, 
money  and  teaching  power,  and  much  ecclesiastical  bitterness 
and  unwholesome  rivalry  would  have  been  avoided.  On  the 
other  hand  it  is  arguable,  that  in  spite  of  these  regrettable  re- 
sults, as  springing  from  the  Disruption,  the  spread  of  Training 
Colleges  would  not  have  been  so  rapid  but  for  the  stimulus 
supplied  by  ecclesiastical  rivalry. 

It  is  right  to  add  that  though  strong  sectarian  feeling  for  a 
considerable  time  led  students  to  attend  the  colleges  connected 
with  the  Churches  to  which  they  belonged,  the  bitterness 
gradually  disappeared,  and  the  question  of  Church  connection 
as  between  the  two  Presbyterian  Churches  scarcely,  if  at  all, 
determined  the  selection  of  the  college  to  be  attended. 

There  was  not  as  yet  an  Episcopal  or  a  Roman  Catholic 
Training  College  in  Scotland,  but  in  1850  an  Episcopal  College 
was  established  in  Edinburgh  and  is  still  very  successfully 
maintained.  After  several  changes  in  search  of  suitable  buildings 
permanent  and  satisfactory  premises  were  found  in  Dairy 
House  to  which  a  Practising  School  was  added.  Except  in 
minor  details  there  were  scarcely  any  changes  in  the  manage- 
ment of  Training  Colleges  till  the  commencement  of  our  fourth 
period,  in  which  their  development  will  be  dealt  with. 

This  is  perhaps  the  most  suitable  place  for  adverting  shortly 
to  the  introduction  of  the  system  of  pupil-teachers  in  1847 
and  to  the  training  they  received. 

Originally  they  were  examined  by  H.M.  Inspector  every 
year,  till  1877,  for  five,  and  subsequently  for  four  years. 

At  the  end  of  the  last  year  of  apprenticeship  collective 
examinations  were  held  at  all  the  Normal  Schools  for  admission 
to  training.  Shortly  after  the  Leaving  Certificate  Examinations 
were  introduced  in  1888,  a  change  was  made,  examinations  being 
held  only  at  the  end  of  the  second  and  fourth  years,  and  provision 
being  made  that  those  who  had  passed  the  Leaving  Certificate 
Examination  in  certain  subjects  should  be  exempt  from  further 
examination.  The  curriculum  was  steadily  and  judiciously 
raised  from  very  modest  demands  till  in  1895  pupil-teachers  of 
average  ability  reached  the  level  of  the  Leaving  Certificate.    The 


XVI]  CHANGES    IN    THE    PUPIL-TEACHER   SYSTEM  213 

next  change  came  in  1906,  when  H.M.* Inspectors  ceased  to  hold 
special  examinations  for  pupil-teachers,  who  were  required  to 
take  the  Intermediate  Certificate  Examination  at  the  end  of 
their  second  year,  and  a  Leaving  Certificate  Examination  or  an 
examination  equivalent  to  it  approved  by  H.M.  Inspector  at  the 
end  of  their  fourth  year.  Along  with  the  change  in  examination 
in  1906  came  a  reduction  in  the  teaching  hours  of  pupil-teachers 
per  week  to  12^,  which  virtually  makes  them  half-timers.  In 
June  of  the  same  year  new  and  far-reaching  regulations  for  the 
Preliminary  Education,  Training  and  Certification  of  teachers 
for  various  grades  of  schools  were  issued. 

These  are  fully  dealt  with  in  an  appendix  by  Dr  Morgan. 
The  doom  of  the  pupil-teacher  system  was  thus  sealed.  By  these 
regulations  the  embryo  teacher,  who  was  henceforth  to  be  known 
as  a  Junior  Student,  was  to  devote  nine-tenths  of  his  time  to  his 
own  education,  and  one-tenth  or  less  than  one-tenth  to  the 
education  of  others.  In  other  words  he  was  to  be  first  and 
foremost  a  student  and  not,  like  the  pupil-teacher,  a  rate-saving, 
juvenile  school-assistant.  Bursaries  were  liberally  provided  for 
Junior  Students  and  highly  equipped  centres  were  established 
for  their  instruction.  The  new  system  rapidly  grew  in  popu- 
larity. No  fewer  than  88  centres  were  formed  in  the  year  it 
came  into  operation. 


CHAPTER    XVII 

THIRD  PERIOD  (1696  to  1858).     ST  ANDREWS  UNIVERSITY 

In  proceeding  to  deal  with  our  third  university  period 
repetition  will  be  avoided  by  pointing  out  some  features  which 
were  approximately  common  to  all  the  Scottish  universities 
during  the  17th  and,  in  some  of  them,  during  a  large  part  of  the 
1 8th  century,  a  period  in  which  university  education  had  in  many 
respects  reached  its  lowest  position  >. 

Some  of  these  were  a  general  adherence  to  education  on 
medieval  lines:  the  Trivium  and  Quadrivium, grammar,  dialectic, 
rhetoric,  music,  arithmetic,  geometry,  and  astronomy,  as  subjects 
for  graduation  ;  the  teachers  being  officials  of  both  college  and 
university  ;  the  aggressive,  or  if  that  is  too  strong  a  word,  the 
successful  character  of  the  Faculty  of  Arts  as  compared  with 
other  Faculties  and  the  practical  independence  of  its  attitude 
towards  the  university  ;  the  general  discontinuance,  with  gradual 
but  varying  rapidity,  of  residence  and  a  common  table,  due 
probably  to  want  of  accommodation,  which  took  place  in  Glasgow 
towards  the  end  of  the  17th,  and  in  St  Andrews  and  Aberdeen 
near  the  end  of  the  i8th  century- ;  the  system  according  to  which 
each  Regent  undertook  the  entire  instruction  of  students  in  all 
the  subjects  of  a  four  years'  curriculum,  which  was  kept  up  till 
past  the  middle  of  the  i8th  century  ;  the  gradual  change  from 
that  system  to  the  establishment  of  a  professoriate  and  specialised 
teaching  for  each  separate  subject :  a  most  important  reform 
imperatively  demanded  by  the  ever-growing  area  covered  by 
every  branch  of  university  study,  the  exhaustive  treatment  of 

^  Report  of  University  Commission  of  1831,  \i.  221. 

2  Cosmo  Innes,  Sketches  of  Early  Scotch  History,  p.  307. 


CH.  XVIl]      CHARACTERISTICS   OF   THE    UNIVERSITIES  215 

which  was  completely  beyond  the  efforts  of  a  single  individual  of 
even  the  most  encyclopaedic  attainments.  Latin  was  not  yet  a 
university  subject'.  The  schools  were  supposed  to  give  sufficient 
preparation  in  that  language,  and  claimed  a  monopoly  of  teaching 
it,  just  as  the  universities  claimed  a  monopoly  of  teaching  Greek. 
This  was  found  to  be  unsatisfactory,  and  recourse  was  had  to 
tutorial  or  private  classes  in  Latin,  presumably  to  enable  students 
to  profit  by  the  lectures  which  were  all  delivered  in  Latin,  with, 
it  is  to  be  feared,  only  moderate  comprehension  and  much 
weakened  effect.  As  merely  an  elementary  knowledge  of  Greek 
was  asked  for,  the  only  imperative  studies  for  a  degree  were  logic, 
metaphysics,  and  natural  philosophy.  The  two  former  were 
simply  medieval  scholasticism,  and  the  latter  included  Aristotle's 
Physics  and  the  Spheres  of  Sacrobosco.  With  philosophy 
pneumatics  was  combined,  a  subject  which  dealt  with  such 
questions  as  the  nature  of  angels,  the  human  soul,  and  the  being 
and  perfections  of  the  one  true  God-.  In  these  circumstances — 
the  neglect  of  linguistic  studies,  and  the  unceasing  repetition  of 
scholastic  subtleties  utterly  destitute  of  human  interest — it  is  not 
difficult  to  understand  that  the  condition  of  academic  life  was 
one  of  arid  dreary  stagnation. 

There  was  no  specialised  professor  of  Latin  till  the  beginning 
of  the  1 8th  century.  Regents  were  changed  into  Professors  in 
Edinburgh  in  1708,  in  Glasgow  in  1727,  in  St  Andrews  in  1747, 
and  in  Aberdeen  not  till  the  beginning  of  the  19th  century. 
Professors  Geddes  in  King's  and  Clerk  Maxwell  in  Marischal 
College,  Aberdeen,  were  the  last  men  appointed  under  the  name 
of  Regents  in  Scotland,  but  their  work  in  Greek  and  natural 
philosophy  respectively  was  specialised.  Latin  had  now  ceased 
to  be  infra-academical,  and  students  taking  it  were  for  the  first 
time  allowed  to  matriculate.     The  students  in  all  the  universities 

*  In  1620  a  Chair  of  Humanity  was  founded  in  St  Leonard's  College  by  Sir  John 
Scott  of  Scots-Tarvet,  but,  owing  to  a  dispute,  it  did  not  become  active  till  about 
1644.  The  authorities  of  St  Salvator's  College  objected  to  St  Leonard's  having  a 
chair  that  tiiey  did  not  possess,  but  by  arrangement  with  the  Earl  of  Cassillis,  the 
patron  of  some  old  college  chaplainries,  they  succeeded  in  getting  one  also,  and  thus 
both  were  satisfied.  Acts  of  Scots  Parliameiit,  vi,  i,  pp.  105,  loS,  184.  Teachers  of 
grammar  schools  however  complained  that  by  these  appointments  their  province 
was  unfairly  invaded.     Evidence,  Vol.  111,  p.  212. 

-  Natural  philosophy  probably  included  mathematics. 


2l6  THIRD   PERIOD.      ST   ANDREWS   UNIVERSITY  [CH. 

lived  in  college  chambers.  When  this  was  gradually  discon- 
tinued, the  rights  of  Bursars  to  residence  and  the  common  table 
were  commuted  for  a  money  payments 

With  respect  to  St  Andrews  there  is,  as  already  mentioned, 
no  trustworthy  information  between  the  time  of  Melville  and  the 
end  of  the  17th  century.  The  manuscript  sources  are  mostly 
confined  to  formal  lists  of  names  and  to  legal  and  fiscal  documents. 
Records  in  narrative  form  were  either  not  kept  or  have  been  lost. 
There  are  several  documents  connected  with  visitations  in  the 
'evidence'  published  by  the  Royal  Commissioners  of  1826,  but 
these  and  the  acts  of  parliament  affecting  the  university  have 
little,  if  any,  educational  aspect. 

There  has  lately  appeared  the  first  of  a  series  of  volumes  of 
the  matriculation  rolls  of  St  Andrews  by  its  very  competent 
librarian,  Mr  Maitland  Anderson.  These  volumes  when  com- 
pleted will  furnish  materials  for  a  tolerably  exhaustive  history  of 
the  university,  of  which  nothing  in  the  form  of  Fasti  exists. 
The  task  is  one  which  can  be  successfully  undertaken  only  by  a 
man  who  has  at  hand  all  the  minutes  and  hitherto  unpublished 
documents.  For  this  task  Mr  Anderson  is  admirably  qualified. 
These  volumes  will  cover  three  periods,  the  first  from  1411  to 
1579,  the  second  from  1579  to  the  union  of  the  colleges  of 
St  Salvator  and  St  Leonard  in  1747,  and  the  third  from  1747  to 
1897.  For  certain  reasons  it  has  been  thought  expedient  to 
begin  with  the  volume  which  covers  the  period  of  150  years 
(1747  to  1897),  a  period  marked  by  many  important  changes, 
and  of  greater  interest  from  its  nearness  to  our  own  times. 

In  the  following  attempt  to  narrate  what  is  known  about  St 
Andrews,  copious  use  has  been  made  of  the  highly  instructive 
and  detailed  introduction  which  accompanies  the  matriculation 
roll  just  referred  to. 

Some  idea  of  the  imperfection  of  the  records  maybe  gathered 
from  the  matriculation  entries.  Geography  seems  to  have  been 
very  faulty,  the  students  matriculating  having  in  some  cases 
assigned  their  native  towns  to  wrong  counties.  Some  ages 
remain  stationary  for  a  year  or  two.  In  others  the  students 
become  rapidly  older  in  the  course  of  a  single  year,  while  some 

1  Kennedy's  Annals  of  Aberdeen,  ii,  p.  391. 


XVri]        ORGANISATION    OF   ST   ANDREWS   UNIVERSITY  217 

become  younger  between  successive  years.  The  youngest  entrant 
is  12,  the  oldest  62  years  of  age.  The  questions  of  age  and  place 
of  birth  were  evidently  non-essential,  for  a  few  had  been  born 
in  two  or  more  places,  the  explanation  probably  being  that  the 
students'  parents  had  removed  from  one  parish  to  another  during 
their  residence  at  the  university. 

In  Roman  Catholic  times  and  after  the  Reformation,  as  often 
as  Episcopacy  was  in  the  ascendant  between  the  Reformation 
and  the  Revolution,  a  Bishop  or  Archbishop  was  Chancellor  and 
official  head  of  the  university.  There  is  no  clear  evidence  as  to 
when  and  how  lay  Chancellors  were  elected,  but  in  1599  the  Earl 
of  Montrose  was  appointed  to  the  office  by  the  King',  and  from 
1697  to  1858  the  Senatus  Academicus  made  the  election,  and 
invariably  appointed  a  layman.  His  chief  function  then  as  now 
was  to  confer  degrees,  but  he  was  often  consulted  on  matters  of 
importance  affecting  the  welfare  and  privileges  of  the  university, 
and  his  sanction  was  required  for  internal  arrangements. 
Residence  was  not  necessary,  and  the  office  became  what 
it  is  now,  practically  an  honorary  appointment  for  life.  In  his 
absence  the  Vice-Chancellor  or  the  Rector  as  '  promotor '  presided 
at  the  graduation  ceremonial.  The  office  of  Vice-Chancellor, 
however,  was  not  always  filled.  For  more  than  100  years  no 
reference  is  made  to  the  existence  of  such  an  official  in  connection 
with  degrees,  and  during  that  time  the  Rector  or  Dean  of  the 
Faculty  of  Arts  undertook  the  graduation  duties.  In  1862  a 
Faculty  of  Medicine  was  established,  but  the  conferring  of  degrees 
had  for  a  long  time  been  under  the  control  of  the  Senatus,  and 
all  that  the  Faculties  could  do  in  this  respect  was  to  recommend 
to  the  Senatus  worthy  candidates'-. 

The  negotiations  for  the  union  of  the  Colleges  of  St  Salvator 
and  St  Leonard  extended  over  nine  years.  It  was  at  first 
proposed  that  all  the  three  colleges  should  be  united,  and  with 
a  view  to  this,  each  was  asked  to  send  in  an  account  of  its  general 
condition  in  respect  of  revenues.  St  Mary's  declined  and  sent  in 
no  statement.  The  other  two  did.  In  1741  the  arrangements 
were  so  nearly  completed  that  a  movement  was  made  for  raising 
a  sum  to  meet  the  expense  of  having  an  act  for  the  union  passed, 

^  Evidence,  Vol.  ni,  1837,  p.  199. 

"  J.  Maitland  Anderson's  Matriculation  Roll,  p.  xv. 


2l8  THIRD   PERIOD.      ST  ANDREWS   UNIVERSITY  [CH. 

but  some  difficulty  emerged  which  was  not  overcome  till  1746. 
In  1747  the  royal  assent  to  the  union  was  received.  The  union 
was  necessary  because  of  the  poverty  of  both  colleges,  part  of 
whose  revenues  had  been  used  for  increasing  church  stipends. 
The  buildings  were  dilapidated  and  the  salaries  were  very  small. 
But  union  was  desirable  on  other  grounds.  There  were  professors 
of  the  same  subjects  in  both  colleges,  and  consequently  great 
waste  of  teaching  power,  for  in  no  subject  were  the  combined 
classes  too  large  for  one  professor.  Two  sets  of  buildings  had 
to  be  kept  up  although  one  set  was  sufficient.  The  United 
College  continued  to  be  residential,  the  number  of  its  members 
being  one  Principal,  eight  Professors,  and  1 6  bursars  on  the  original 
foundation,  with  possibly  others,  and  the  college  servants. 

The  Principal  of  St  Leonard's  became  Principal  of  the  United 
College.  The  professorial  staff  was  made  up  of  three  from  St 
Leonard's,  three  from  St  Salvator's,  and  two  who  were  Professors 
in  the  university,  but  previously  not  attached  to  either  college, 
one  being  Professor  of  Mathematics,  and  the  other  Professor  of 
Medicine.     A  saving  was  effected  by  this  reduction  of  staff. 

When  the  colleges  were  united  the  constitutional  arrange- 
ments for  the  management  of  the  university  were  somewhat 
complicated.  There  were  four  bodies  each  with  functions 
apparently  special,  but  at  the  same  time  such  as  could  scarcely 
be  discharged  without  collision  arising  over  matters  in  which, 
to  a  greater  or  less  extent,  some  of  the  other  bodies  were  interested 
and  for  which  they  thought  themselves  responsible.  The  four 
bodies  were  the  Comitia,  which  consisted  of  the  resident  members 
of  the  university,  and  had  at  least  one  special  function,  the 
election  of  the  Rector.  The  next  was  the  Senatus  Academicus, 
which  consisted  of  the  Principals  and  Profes.sors  of  both  colleges, 
whose  power  seems  to  have  been  absolutely  autocratic,  covering 
matters  academical,  financial,  and  disciplinary.  The  next  body 
was  the  two  colleges  which  in  certain  business  matters  were 
independent  of  the  university.  "  Each  held  its  own  meetings, 
managed  its  own  property,  appointed  its  own  officials,  and 
exercised  discipline  over  its  members  subject  to  an  appeal  to  the 
Rectorial  Courts"  This  Rectorial  Court  was  the  Senatus.  The 
next  and  last  was  the  Faculty  of  Arts,  which  consisted  of  the 

^  Anderson's  Matriculation  Roll,  p.  xiii. 


xvii]     rp:lations  of  the  coi.lkces  and  faculties      219 

Principal  and  Professors  of  the  United  College,  administered  its 
own  revenues,  and  could  grant  degrees  in  Arts  independently  of 
the  Senatus.  In  these  arrangements  there  was  little  change  till 
1858. 

For  more  than  100  years  after  the  union  the  usual  course 
covered  four  years,  during  the  whole  of  which  attendance  in  the 
Latin  and  Greek  classes  was  imperative.  In  the  second  year 
mathematics  and  logic  were  added,  mathematics  and  moral 
philosophy  in  the  third,  and  mathematics  and  natural  philosophy 
in  the  fourth  year.  History  and  chemistry  were  recommended  as 
subjects  to  be  studied,  but  they  were  apparently  not  imperative. 
This  curriculum  continued  in  force  till  1858,  when  considerable 
changes  were  introduced. 

The  election  of  Rector  seems  to  have  undergone  more  changes 
in  St  Andrews  than  in  the  other  universities.  By  the  original 
constitution  all  the  students  took  part  in  the  election.  The  first 
change  was  introduced  in  1475,  when  the  "  election  was  confined 
to  Doctors,  Masters,  and  Graduates,"  but  on  the  occasion  of  a 
royal  visitation  in  1625  a  return  was  made  to  the  original  plan'. 
"  P>om  1747  to  1825  the  right  of  election  was  confined  to  the 
Principals  and  Professors,  the  students  of  St  Mary's  College,  and 
the  third  and  fourth  year  students  of  the  United  College'-."  In 
1826  it  was  restored  to  all  matriculated  students,  and  in  1859  the 
election  was  made  by  '  nations '  as  in  Glasgow  and  Aberdeen. 
The  four  '  nations  '  were  : 

Fifani — Natives  of  Fife,  Kinross,  Clackmannan,  and  Perth- 
shire south  of  Tay. 

Angusiani — Natives  of  Forfar,  Perth  north  of  Tay,  Kincardine, 
Aberdeen,  Banff,  Moray,  Nairn,  Inverness  exclusive  of  the  Isles, 
Ross,  Sutherland,  Cromarty  and  Orkney. 

Lothiani — Natives  of  Linlithgow,  Edinburgh,  Haddington, 
Peebles,  Selkirk,  Berwick  and  Roxburgh. 

Albani— Natives  of  Dumfries,  Kirkcudbright,  Wigtown,  Ayr, 
Renfrew,  Bute,  Lanark,  Dumbarton,  Stirling,  Argyle,  the  Western 
Isles,  and  all  who  were  not  natives  of  Scotland. 

Each  nation  elected  an  Intrant  as  its  representative,  and  these 

'  Evidence,  p.  203. 

2  Evidence,  p.  9,  aiul  J.  Maitland  Anderson's  Matriculation  Roll,  p.  xviii. 


220  THIRD   PERIOD.      ST  ANDREWS   UNIVERSITY  [CH. 

four  elected  the  Rector.  In  the  event  of  equality  of  votes  by  the 
Intrants  the  retiring  Rector  had  a  casting  vote. 

After  the  union  of  the  colleges  only  four  persons  were 
eligible  for  the  office  of  Rector,  viz.  the  Principal  of  the  United 
College,  the  Principal  of  St  Mary's  College,  the  Professors  of 
Divinity  and  of  Church  History^  This  restricted  choice  was 
disliked  by  the  students  and  objectionable  on  other  grounds  for 
the  dispatch  of  business  at  college  meetings.  The  students, 
tenacious  of  what  they  believed  were  their  rights,  boldly  elected 
in  1825  an  outside  Rector  in  the  person  of  Sir  Walter  Scott,  who 
was  of  course  declared  by  the  Senatus  Academicus  to  be  in- 
eligible'-. To  describe  in  detail  the  contest  between  the  Senatus 
and  the  students  from  that  time  forward  would  be  tedious. 
Suffice  it  to  say  that  in  1843  the  Intrants  elected  Dr  Chalmers,  a 
former  Professor  of  Moral  Philosophy,  as  Rector.  The  contest  had 
now  reached  an  acute  stage,  and  the  Intrants  were  called  to  account 
by  the  Senatus  for  violating  the  statutes,  and  threatened  with 
expulsion,  which  however  was  not  carried  out.  Undaunted  by 
previous  failures  two  Intrants,  15  years  later,  voted  for  Professor 
Buist,  and  two  for  Sir  Ralph  Anstruther,  and  Professor  Brown  the 
retiring  Rector  gave  his  casting  vote  for  the  outsider.  The 
validity  of  the  election  being  again  called  in  question,  the  matter 
was  referred  to  Lord  Advocate  Inglis,  afterwards  Lord  President 
of  the  Court  of  Session,  who  recommended  the  Senatus  to  install 
Sir  Ralph  Anstruther.  In  1859  the  commissioners  finally  settled 
the  question  by  ordaining  that  the  election  was  to  be  decided  by 
a  general  poll  of  the  matriculated  students,  and  that  all  Principals 
and  Professors  were  ineligible  for  the  office^ 

From  the  union  of  the  colleges  up  to  1859  the  Rector  was  the 
resident  head  of  the  university  and  president  of  the  Senatus 
Academicus,  and  not  as  now  an  honorary  official. 

At  the  time  of  the  union  the  Chair  of  Civil  History  was  founded 
by  the  Act  of  Union.     It  was  the  only  new  chair  introduced  into 

^  Anderson's  Matriculation  Roll,  p.  xix. 

2  Principal  Tulloch  when  a  student  at  St  Andrews  was  the  leader  of  a  protest  by 
the  students  against  the  election  to  the  Rectorship  of  "  certain  professors  in  rotation 
without  any  reference  to  the  wishes  of  the  students."  Mrs  Oliphant's  Memoir  of 
Tulloch,   3rd  ed.,   Edin.   1889,  p.    10. 

^  Ordinance,  No.  4. 


XVIl]  DIFFICULTY   IN    INCREASING   THE   STAFF  221 

the  United  College,  all  the  other  subjects  having  been  previously 
taught  in  the  university.  It  was  one  of  the  eight  professorships 
which  formed  the  original  teaching  staff  of  the  United  College. 
The  Chair  of  Mathematics,  founded  in  1668,  was  also  at  the  union 
transferred  from  the  university  to  the  college.  No  enlargement 
of  the  foregoing  professorial  staff  was  contemplated  by  the  Act 
of  Union.  It  was  against  the  interests  of  the  eight  Professors  to 
have  new  chairs  founded,  and  the  Professor  of  Chemistry  was 
deliberately  kept  out  of  the  membership  of  the  college  until  he 
was  put  in  by  ordinance.  For  the  Chair  of  Civil  History  there 
was  neither  a  regular  class,  nor  satisfactory  continuity  in  the 
work  proposed  to  be  done  by  such  a  professorship. 

Muddle  is  perhaps  the  only  word  descriptive  of  the  policy  pur- 
sued. It  is  difficult  to  assign  the  cause  or  allocate  the  blame.  Civil 
History  having  failed  to  attract  students,  one  of  the  occupants  of 
the  chair  is  said  to  have  taught  Modern  Languages  instead. 
Three  successive  Professors  up  to  1850  had  no  better  success, 
one  of  them  admitting  to  the  commissioners  of  1 827  that  the  chair 
had  been  a  sinecure,  so  far  as  lecturing  was  concerned,  during  the 
42  years  he  had  occupied  it.  When  a  vacancy  occurred  in  1850, 
the  Patron,  acting  on  the  suggestion  of  the  Senatus,  appointed  a 
Professor  who  was  to  add  Natural  Histor)^  in  all  its  branches  to 
Civil  History.  As  might  be  expected  from  this  unnatural  com- 
bination, though  sanctioned  in  1862  by  Ordinance  21,  section  8, 
failure  was  the  result.  This  Professor  in  the  course  of  25  years 
is  said  to  have  had  one  class  in  Civil,  and  six  classes  in  Natural 
History.  In  the  latter  subject  he  delivered  50  lectures  in  which 
were  included  Mineralogy,  Geology,  and  Zoology^ 

Towards  the  end  of  the  i8th  century  the  Town  Council  and 
university  authorities  entered  into  negotiations  for  the  payment 
of  a  teacher  of  French.  The  movement  apparently  was  not  a 
successful  one  for,  after  the  experience  of  a  few  years,  we  find  the 
United  College  agreeing  to  give  the  teacher  £s>  and  St  Mary's 
College  half  that  amount,  provided  "he  shall  remove  himself 
peaceably  without  giving  them  any  trouble."  It  may  be  pre- 
sumed that  he  accepted  the  offer.  At  an\-  rate  we  hear  nothing 
more  about  French  till  1794  when  a  I'renchman  was  appointed 

^  Anderson's  Matriculation  Roll,  p.  xxxiii. 


222  THIRD    PERIOD.      ST   ANDREWS    UNIVERSITY  [CH. 

and  taught  the  subject. till  1802.  Falling  ill  he  was  succeeded  by 
a  Mr  Hunter  who  for  15  years  combined  with  French  teaching 
lectures  on  Logic.  From  1817  to  1854  a  second  Frenchman 
held  the  appointment  with,  presumably  from  the  time  covered, 
satisfactory  success.  There  is  however  no  record  of  the  number 
of  his  students. 

The  story  of  the  origin  of  the  Chair  of  Medicine  by  the 
'  Princely  Chandos  '  is  very  curious,  and  is  told  in  detail  by 
Mr  Maitland  Anderson  in  an  admirable  article  in  the  Scottish 
Revieiv  of  January  1895.  It  is  much  too  long  for  our  purpose, 
but  a  summary  of  it  may  be  given  and  not  be  out  of  place  in  view 
of  the  interest  taken  in  and  the  kindness  shown  to  St  Andrews 
by  that  somewhat  eccentric  but  generous  nobleman  the  first  Duke 
of  Chandos.  How  the  interest  arose  is  purely  a  matter  of  con- 
jecture, the  most  probable  explanation  being  that  it  had  its  origin 
in  his  friendship  with  the  Duke  of  Atholl,  then  Chancellor  of  the 
University.  Be  this  as  it  may,  the  outcome  of  it  was  an  offer  to 
found  a  Chair  of  Eloquence  or  Rhetoric.  The  Senatus,  in  thank- 
fully accepting  the  offer,  suggested  that  a  Chair  of  Medicine  and 
Anatomy  would  be  more  useful,  especially  as  they  knew  no  one 
who  could  satisfactorily  fill  a  Chair  of  Rhetoric.  The  Duke,  in  a 
letter  couched  in  terms  of  a  charming  old-world  courtesy,  left  it 
absolutely  in  the  hands  of  the  Senatus  to  substitute  a  Chair  of 
Medicine  for  a  Chair  of  Eloquence  or  Rhetoric.  This  however 
did  not  settle  the  question.  It  is  tolerably  clear  from  a  pretty 
large  correspondence  that  a  Dr  Stuart,  who  had  probably  been 
tutor  to  the  Marquis  of  Carnarvon,  son  of  the  Duke  of  Chandos, 
had  originally  suggested  a  Chair  of  Rhetoric  in  the  interest  of  an 
intimate  friend,  Francis  Pringle,  Professor  of  Greek  in  St 
Leonard's  College.  Dr  Stuart  thought  Pringle  could  be  Professor 
of  Rhetoric  without  interference  with  the  professorship  he  already 
held.  In  the  meantime  a  small  minority  of  the  Senatus  drafted 
regulations  for  the  proposed  Chair  of  Rhetoric,  and  another 
committee  did  the  same  for  a  Chair  of  Medicine  and  Anatomy. 
A  proposal  to  submit  the  drafts  for  his  Grace's  judgment  was 
negatived,  Mr  Pringle  and  another  dissenting.  In  this  way  the 
Chair  of  Medicine  and  Anatomy  was  founded  in  1721,  but  it  had 
no  better  success  than  the  Chair  of  Civil  History.     The  first  three 


XVIl]  BENEFACTORS   FOUND   NEW   CHAIRS  223 

Professors  seem  to  have  "demonstrated  the  skeleton,"  and  given 
occasional  lectures  on  Practical  Pharmacy.  From  1811  to  1896 
a  succession  of  three  or  four  Professors  lectured  on  Chemistry, 
Anatomy  or  Physiology,  apparently  in  a  general  way,  but 
Medicine  seems  not  to  have  been  touched. 

In  1808  Dr  John  Gray  left  a  sum  of  money  to  found  a  Chair 
of  Chemistry,  but  no  appointment  was  made  till  1840,  when  by 
accumulation  the  required  amount  was  reached.  The  chair 
however  had  no  status  either  in  college  or  university  till  1844, 
when  the  Professor  was  admitted  as  a  member  of  the  Senatus, 
and  in  1862  became  a  Professor  in  the  United  College. 

In  Greek,  Humanity,  and  Mathematics  there  were  no  changes 
except  the  addition  of  a  third  more  advanced  class,  the  addition 
to  Mathematics  being  made  in  1822  and  to  Greek  and  Humanity 
in  1853.  The  course  of  instruction  in  Natural  and  Experimental 
Philosophy  was  considerably  expanded. 

When  the  colleges  were  united  in  1747  St  Salvator's  had  six 
and  St  Leonard's  10  foundation  bursars.  There  were  also  four 
servers  who,  like  sizars  in  the  English  colleges,  originally  had 
certain  menial  duties  to  perform  in  connection  with  the  college 
tables,  for  which  they  received  payments  on  the  same  terms  as 
the  foundation  bursars,  viz.  from  £^  to  £6.  The  payments 
were  gradually  raised  till,  in  1829,  they  reached  ;^io,  an  amount 
which  remained  unchanged  till  the  passing  of  the  Act  of  1889, 
when  10  were  combined  to  form  five  bursaries  of  ;^20,  the  others 
retaining  their  former  value.  At  the  union  of  the  colleges  these 
were  the  only  bursaries  open  to  competition  by  students  entering 
the  university. 

During  the  second  half  of  the  1 8th  century  only  three  additional 
bursaries  were  founded,  but  in  the  19th  century  the  increase  was 
so  great  that  in  1896  more  than  100,  ranging  from  ;^5  to  ^^50, 
were  open,  in  the  awarding  of  which  there  was  a  steadily  growing 
tendency  towards  competition  rather  than  presentation, a  tendency 
both  healthy  in  itself  and  the  natural  result  of  the  establishment 
of  a  preliminary  entrance  examination  in  1892. 

A  feature  probably  peculiar  to  St  Mary's  was  the  daily  meet- 
ing for  morning  and  evening  prayer  in  the  Prayer  Hall,  where 
the  services  were  conducted  entirely  by  students,  no  Professor 


224  THIRD   PERIOD.      ST   ANDREWS   UNIVERSITY  [CH. 

being  present.  In  the  course  of  time  these  meetings  lost  much 
of  their  devotional  character,  and  were  sometimes  accompanied 
by  serious  irregularities  in  the  behaviour  of  the  students,  who 
"  assembled  there  under  the  pretext  of  attending  prayers,  and 
adjourned  to  the  lodgings  of  their  fellow-students  or  to  taverns, 
where  they  spent  their  evenings  in  idleness  and  dissipation^" 
In  consequence  of  this,  evening  prayers  were  in  1 824  discontinued, 
and  morning  prayers  were  conducted  in  the  class-rooms  before 
the  commencement  of  lectures.  The  buildings  were  at  this 
time  sadly  dilapidated  but  thorough  renovation  followed  shortly 
thereafter. 

From  the  union  in  1747  to  18 14  there  were  nine  bursaries 
tenable  for  four  years,  the  holders  of  which  were  maintained  at  the 
public  table.  In  the  latter  year  maintenance  was  changed  into  a 
money  payment,  an  arrangement  which  continued  for  60  years, 
when  the  number  of  bursaries  was  reduced  to  six,  and  20  years  later 
to  three,  tenable  for  three  years  and  of  the  increased  value  of  ;^24. 
There  was  no  examination  for  foundation  bursaries  in  Divinity 
till  1855  ;  certificates  of  character  and  success  in  the  Arts  course 
determined  the  selection.  Early  in  the  19th  century  residence  had 
practically  ceased.  There  were  only  a  few  prizes  of  values  rang- 
ing from  i^io  to  ;^2i  to  be  competed  for  by  Divinity  students. 
Till  1855  they  had  no  fees  to  pay.  In  that  year  and  up  to  1873 
a  fee  of  ^i.  lis.  6d.  was  charged.  The  Divinity  session  covered 
five  months  including  a  short  vacation  at  Christmas.  In  1826  it 
was  reduced  to  four  months. 

After  the  union  up  to  1843  fairly  successful  attempts  were 
made  to  keep  alive  and,  as  far  as  possible,  restore  the  ecclesiastical 
tradition  of  the  university  by  making  attendance  at  public 
worship  by  the  students  a  quasi-university  function.  This 
was  doubtless  one  of  the  original  aims  of  the  university,  and  was 
longest  retained  in  St  Andrews.  The  selection  of  a  church  for 
this  purpose  depended  on  circumstances  in  respect  of  convenience 
and  condition  of  the  buildings.  For  some  time  St  Leonard's, 
and  subsequently  St  Salvator's  Church,  was  that  to  which  the 
students  were  conducted.  Towards  the  end  of  the  i8th  century 
dispensations  from  attending  church  were  granted  to  non-Presby- 

'  Report  of  Commissioners,  1837.     Evidence,  p.  96. 


XVIl]  COMPULSORY   ATTENDANCE   AT   CHURCH  225 

tcrian  students  on  their  giving  assurance  to  remain  indoors  and 
not  behave  improperly  during  the  time  of  divine  worship.  Before 
long  greater  freedom  was  asked  for,  and  a  petition  largely  signed 
by  students  was  in  1824  presented  to  the  authorities  craving 
permission  to  be  allowed  to  worship  where  they  pleased.  This 
request  was  refused.  Students  who  were  late  or  absent,  and  had 
not  got  dispensations,  were  fined,  the  fines  going  to  the  poor  of 
St  Leonard's  parish.  Compulsory  attendance  ceased  in  1843, 
and  when  the  church  was  renovated  in  1862  the  students'  gallery 
was  done  away  with. 

The  buildings  of  both  St  Leonard's  and  St  Salvator's  Colleges, 
but  especially  of  the  latter,  were  at  the  time  of  the  union  in  a 
more  or  less  dilapidated  condition,  but  after  examination  it  was 
decided  that,  for  certain  reasons,  repairs  could  be  on  the  whole 
more  profitably  made  on  the  more  ruinous  structure.  Sundry 
reconstructions  and  additions  were  accordingly  carried  out,  but 
though  ;^550O  had  been  expended,  the  Commissioners  of  1826 
pronounced  the  buildings  to  be  in  a  lamentable  condition.  It 
was  the  unanimous  opinion  of  Commissioners,  Professors,  and 
tradesmen  that  they  were  unsatisfactory  and  even  discreditable. 
Professor  Chalmers  said  they  "should  not  only  have  a  complete 
suite  of  class-rooms,  but  a  fabric  of  somewhat  creditable  aspect, 
that  would  announce  itself  to  be  a  college,  and  not  be  mistaken 
for  an  old  cotton-mill  V 

An  appeal  for  funds  was  made  to  Government  by  Lord 
Melville  who  was  then  Chancellor,  and  in  1828  authority  was 
given  to  the  Barons  of  Exchequer  in  Scotland  to  proceed  with 
the  works.  The  addition  of  a  new  east  wing  on  ground  chosen 
by  the  Government  was  a  great  improvement,  but  far  from 
successful  in  respect  of  taste,  convenience,  and  sanitation.  Dry 
rot  set  in,  and  made  it  necessary  to  renew  the  flooring  of  the 
lower  rooms.  Nothing  more  was  done  towards  completing  the 
repairs  till  1843,  when  Sir  Hugh  Lyon  Playfair,  Provost  of  St 
Andrews,  took  the  matter  in  hand  with  such  energy  and  heartiness 
that  new  plans  were  prepared  and  sanctioned,  and  the  recon- 
struction completed  in  185  i.  The  buildings  were  then  taken  over 
by  the  Treasury,  and  in  1889  transferred  to  the  University  Court. 

^  Evidence,  p.  163. 

K.  E.  15 


CHAPTER   XVIII 

THIRD  PERIOD  (1696  TO  1858).     GLASGOW  UNIVERSITY 

On  the  re-establishment  of  Episcopacy  at  the  Restoration  the 
university  was  deprived  of  a  large  amount  of  its  revenues,  in 
consequence  of  which  three  professorships  were  temporarily  dis- 
continued, one  of  Theology,  and  those  of  Humanity  and  Medicine. 
The  staff  accordingly  was  represented  by  the  Principal,  one 
professor  of  Theology,  and  four  Regents.  From  this  time  till  the 
Revolution  there  was  no  change. 

When  at  the  Revolution  Presbytery  was  re-established,  many 
of  the  Professors  were  removed  from  their  chairs,  and  their 
places  were  taken  by  men  of  no  special  distinction.  As  a  con- 
sequence of  this  the  end  of  the  17th  and  the  first  quarter  of  the 
1 8th  century  was,  as  we  have  seen,  a  period  of  stagnation  in 
university  life.  There  was  however  no  scarcity  of  students. 
Professor  Reid,  on  the  authority  of  Principal  Stirling's  diary  of 
1702,  informs  us  that,  owing  to  the  great  demand  for  clergymen 
to  fill  the  charges  left  vacant  by  the  ecclesiastical  change,  the 
number  of  students  was  402,  of  whom  323  were  Arts  students^ 
Regenting  being  still  the  fashion,  the  Regents,  as  a  rule,  knew  a 
little  of  all  university  subjects  in  the  Faculty  of  Arts,  but  none 
so  thoroughly  as  to  make  important  contributions  to  learning  or 
arouse  healthy  interest  in  the  subjects  taught.  This  was  followed 
by  idleness,  lowered  tone  in  the  students,  and  want  of  loyalty  to 
the  chief  authorities  on  the  part  of  the  Regents. 

A  perusal  of  the  Miinimenta  dealing  with  that  period  warrants 
the  inference  that  the  condition  of  the  university  was  very  far 

1  Old  Statistical  Accounl  of  Glasgow  University,  p.  27,  1799. 


CH.  XVIII]  DISORDER   IN    THE    i8TII   CENTURY  22/ 

from  satisfactory.  On  many  occasions  during  the  next  twenty 
years  students  were  either  expelled  or  severely  censured  for  long 
absences  from  lectures,  breaches  of  the  peace,  indecency,  drinking 
in  ale-houses  with  disreputable  people,  and  scandalously  irreverent 
behaviour  in  church.  One  student  was  expelled  for  stealing  a 
book,  another  for  appropriating  church  collections  meant  for  the 
poor.  Up  to  1725  scarcely  any  year  was  free  from  rowdyism 
incurring  expulsion.  Blasphemous  language  and  abuse  of  the 
Confession  of  Faith  were  indulged  in.  The  Principal  received 
insulting  letters  calling  him  a  "  greeting  [weeping]  hypocrite." 
When  a  student  was  imprisoned  in  the  steeple  for  such  conduct, 
his  friends  broke  open  the  doors  and  released  him.  Even  the 
Rector  was  not  safe  from  insult,  and  his  house  was  attacked  by 
a  riotous  rabble.  Students  challenged  each  other  to  fight  with 
swords.  Town  and  gown  riots  were  marked  by  a  violence  far 
exceeding  the  licence  usually  permissible  and  leniently  winked 
at  on  such  occasions.  Barbarous  assaults  were  made  on  citizens 
who,  by  way  of  reprisal,  entered  the  college  "  drawing  their  swords 
and  shooting  among  the  unarmed  students."  The  college 
authorities  admit  "  there  were  faults  on  both  hands,"  and  in  a 
conference  with  the  magistrates  "  conclude  an  act  of  oblivion  for 
what  is  past  and  endeavour  a  regulation  for  the  future^" 

The  classes  were  opened  with  prayer  by  the  students  in  turn. 
The  prevailing  tone  being  such  as  has  been  described,  it  is  not 
surprising  that  this  practice  was  found  to  be  so  little  conducive  to 
edification  that,  "  upon  weighty  considerations,"  the  authorities 
recommended  its  discontinuance,  or  if  continued,  that  only 
students  of  the  greatest  gravity  and  sobriety  should  be  chosen^. 

We  find  a  similar  disregard  of  law  and  order  in  the  conduct 
of  some  of  the  Professors,  two  of  whom  were  on  more  occasions 
than  one  "  guilty  of  insolent  carriage  and  contempt  against  the 
Principal... and  the  I'aculty  suspends  them  from  their  functions 
as  Regents  "  till  they  crave  pardon,  which  they  do  and  the  sus- 
pension is  removed  ^ 

At  this  time  Professors  were  usually  appointed  bye.xamination 
and  competition,  but  the  candidates  seem  to  have  been  few  and 


'  Munimciita,  \i,  37:,  410,  415,  423. 

^  Mtinimeitta,  u,  375.  *  Mttnimenta,  II,  384,  387. 


15- 


228  THIRD    PERIOD.      GLASGOW   UNIVERSITY  [CH. 

the  test  of  competency  strongly  medieval',  and  when  not 
medieval,  ludicrously  simple.  A  Professor  of  Greek  was  duly 
appointed  after  delivering  within  five  days  an  analysis  of  ten  lines 
(171  — 181)  of  the  8th  book  of  the  Iliad,  and  a  Professor  of  Latin 
on  producing  after  three  days  a  translation  of  a  passage  from  the 
Afma/s  of  Tacitus,  and  a  Latin  version  of  Lord  Loudoun's 
speech-.     In  neither  case  was  there  a  competition. 

The  Latin  teaching  had  been  discontinued  for  nearly  twenty 
years  owing  to  want  of  funds.  When  it  was  now  revived  the 
salary  was  ;^240  Scots,  and  was  soon  afterwards  considerably 
increased  to  about  ^,"20  sterling.  In  order  not  to  injure  the 
grammar  school  "  the  Professor  of  Latin  was  forbidden  to  teach 
Latin  grammar,  that  being  proper  and  peculiar  to  a  grammar 
school."  No  students  were  admitted  into  the  Latin  class  "  unless 
they  have  learned  at  least  the  three  parts  of  grammar^"  This 
considerate  tenderness  for  the  welfare  of  the  grammar  school  had 
its  consistent  counterpart  in  the  university's  protection  of  its  own 
interests  by  forbidding,  as  in  Edinburgh^  the  grammar  school 
to  teach  Greek.  This  prohibition,  if  it  existed  in  Glasgow,  seems 
to  have  been  somewhat  ignored,  for  we  are  told  that  in  the  High 
School  of  Glasgow  there  was  given  "a  little  insight  into  Greek." 
It  is  at  any  rate  certain  that  the  Professor  of  Greek  had  a  class  in 
which  the  work  commenced  with  the  alphabets  In  point  of  fact 
till  well  past  the  middle  of  the  19th  century  this  was  the  case  in 
Glasgow.  As  late  as  1875  the  Calendar  states  that  the  Tyrones 
or  youngest  class  commence  with  the  grammar. 

During  this  unpromising  period  however  we  are  not  without 
evidence  of  earnest  efforts  being  made  by  the  authorities  to  brace 

^  Three  or  four  subjects  were  prescribed   and   assigned   to  the   candidates   by 
lot,  e.g. 

Quodnam  sit  criterion  veritatis? 

Num  mens  humana  sit  materialis  an  immaterialis? 

Quodnam  sit  fundamentale  praeceptum  juris  naturalis,  aut  quaenam,  si  plura  sint? 

Quae  sit  causa  variorum  colonim  in  corporibus  naturalibus? 

Munifnenta,  II,  413. 

2  Munimenia,  il,  385,  389. 

'  Munimenta,  n,  390. 

*  Grant's  University  of  Edinburgh,  i,  208. 

'  In  Cook's  Life  of  Principal  Hill,  p.  62,  we  are  told  that  in  1760  Professor  Hill 
spent  much  time  in  teaching  the  alphabet  and  parts  of  speech  in  Greek. 


XVIII]  GRADUAL    REVIVAL   OF    LEARNING  229 

up  what  was  loose  in  the  general  management.  There  were 
proposals  for  the  increase  of  salaries.  Professors  were  requested 
to  give  to  the  Principal  and  Dean  of  Faculty  "  An  account  of 
their  way  of  teaching  and  managing  their  several  provinces." 
Strict  rules  were  laid  down  for  preserving  the  instruments  for 
experiments  in  Natural  Philosophy.  The  professors  of  Greek 
and  Humanity  of  themselves  proposed  very  sensible  suggestions 
for  improvement  in  the  teaching  of  these  subjects^  Bursars 
neglecting  their  studies  were  to  forfeit  their  emoluments.  Nor 
were  friends  outside  the  university  indifferent  about  its  interests. 
Within  thirty  years  there  was  an  addition  of  seven  chairs,  some 
of  them  revived,  some  newly  founded,  viz.  Mathematics  (1691), 
Humanity  (1706),  Oriental  Languages  (1709),  Civil  Law  (17 12), 
Medicine  (1712),  Church  History  (1716),  and  Anatomy  (ijiSy. 

In  1708  Queen  Anne  made  a  grant  of  ;^2 10  yearly  for  increase 
of  professors'  salaries,  a  gift  which  was  renewed  by  her  successors. 
King  William's  grant  of  ;i^300  a  year  was  employed  for  ex- 
tinguishing debt  and  for  the  support  of  four  bursars.  Subse- 
quently part  of  it  was  used  to  provide  salaries  for  the  Professor  of 
Civil  Law  and  the  Professor  of  Medicine,  and  George  I  furnished 
;^I70  a  year  for  the  Professor  of  Church  History ^ 

In  several  directions  we  see  the  growth  of  a  spirit  of  earnest- 
ness and  of  creditable  effort  on  the  part  of  the  university  authorities. 
They  check  a  tendency  to  needless  and  injurious  expense  on 
entertainments  at  graduation,  the  stenting  [assessing]  for  which 
is  forbidden  on  pain  of  expulsion.  They  placed  their  patriotism 
and  pluck  above  suspicion  when,  in  view  of  a  threatened  "  invasion 
by  French  and  Irish  Papists  sent  and  supported  by  the  French 
King,"  they  agree  to  furnish  from  among  them  5  i  soldiers  and 
pay  them  each  sixpence  a  day^ 

Up  to  this  time  there  seem  to  have  been  no  candidates  for 
the  degree  of  M.D.  In  1711  a  skilful  surgeon  asked  to  be 
examined  for  that  degree.  The  authorities  "  considering  that 
they  might  still  want  professors  of  Medicine  "  consent  to  examine 
him,  but  as  there  was  no  Medical  Faculty,  nor  even  a  single 

Muninuttta,  il,  407. 
-  University  of  Glasgo-o  Old  and  New,  XXIV. 
"*  Old  Statistical  Accouut  of  Glasgow  University,  p.  2S,   1799. 
*  Munimenta,  li,  393. 


230  THIRD   PERIOD.      GLASGOW    UNIVERSITY  [CH. 

medical  professor,  a  board  of  examiners  had  to  be  improvised 
for  the  occasion  consisting  of  two  physicians  practising  in  the 
city,  and  some  lay  assessors,  who  did  not  put  him  to  an  unduly 
severe  test^  They  reported  that  he  had  acquitted  himself  well 
and  was  worthy  of  the  degree.  In  the  following  year  (17 12) 
regulations  were  made  for  reviving  the  professorships  of  Medicine 
and  Law,  which  had  fallen  into  abeyance  for  a  considerable  time, 
and  the  reviving  of  which  had  been  recommended  at  the  visita- 
tion in  1 664-. 

The  university  still  maintained  its  exemption  from  the  juris- 
diction of  the  city  magistrates  in  connection  with  offences  charged 
against  students,  and  on  several  occasions  ordered  proceedings  to 
be  taken  against  the  magistrates  should  they  refuse  to  restore 
fines  imposed  on  students  who  were  noways  under  their  juris- 
diction I 

In  1 7 14  a  proposal,  ultimately  successful,  was  made  to  get  a 
printing  press  for  the  university,  and  about  the  same  time  the 
morals  of  the  students  were  safeguarded  by  a  prohibition  against 
acting  of  plays.  These  measures  are  satisfactory  evidence  of 
honest  intention  on  the  part  of  the  authorities  to  improve  matters, 
but  one  is  led  to  question  their  breadth  of  view,  on  learning  that 
they  gave  the  Provost  hearty  thanks  for  the  interest  he  had  taken 
in  the  students,  by  refusing  to  a  gentleman  from  England  per- 
mission to  give  a  course  of  Experimental  Philosophy  in  the  city^ 

An  act  for  the  better  regulation  of  the  university  in  1727 
deals  with  the  election  of  Rector,  meetings  to  be  held,  bursars, 
factor,  accounts,  professors,  teaching  and  degrees.  The  stringency 
of  the  regulations  (which  occupy  12  pages)  affecting  the  condi- 
tion of  the  university  at  all  points  shows  that  the  commissioners 
considered  drastic  measures  for  its  rehabilitation  absolutely 
imperative^ 

Instruction  in  Aristotelian  philosophy  continued  to  be 
imparted  in  Latin  to  boys  of  from  13  to  15  years  of  age",  the 

1  Alunimenta,  li,  401,  and  Duncan's  Memorials  of  Glasgow  Faculty  of  Physicians., 
p.  117. 

2  Munimenta,  II,  408.  ^  Munimenia,  11,400. 
*  Munimenta,  II,  429.                                           ^  Munimenta,  II,  569. 

«  Principal  Hill  and  Colin   Maclaurin  were   11,   Principal   Robertson  and  David 
Hume  were  12  years  of  age  when  they  entered  college. 


XVIIl]  REORGANISATION    OF   TEACHING   METHODS  23 1 

language  being  largely,  and  the  subject  almost  entirely,  beyond 
them.  It  is  difficult  to  conceive  of  anything  more  deadening. 
The  wonder  is  that  it  proved  to  any  extent  workable. 

Prospects  began  to  brighten  with  the  appointment  of 
Hutcheson  to  the  Chair  of  Moral  Philosophy  in  1728.  He  was 
not  the  first  to  see  the  lamentable  waste  of  teaching  power 
involved  in  lecturing  to  lads  in  a  language  of  which  many  of  them 
had  not  a  working  knowledge,  but  the  first  to  have  the  inde- 
pendence to  assert  it  and  act  accordingly.  By  lecturing  in  English 
and  discarding  old  text-books  of  barren  scholasticism  he  stirred 
up  intellectual  life,  invested  his  subject  with  fresh  interest,  and 
gave  the  first  hearty  impulse  to  the  pursuit  of  philosophy  in 
Scotland.  The  example  he  set  was  followed,  at  first  slowly,  but 
in  course  of  time  generally,  by  Simson  in  Geometry,  by  Adam 
Smith  and  Thomas  Reid  in  Philosophy,  by  Cullen  and  Black  in 
Chemistry,  and  by  Leechman  in  Theology.  Lecturing  in  Latin 
was  continued  longer  in  Law  than  in  other  subjects. 

Salaries  were  small  in  the  early  years  of  the  i8th  century,  the 
Principal  receiving  ^60,  and  his  four  Regents  ^25  each  and 
"  board  at  the  common  table,"  and  the  Professors  of  Latin  and 
Greek,  subjects  not  necessary  for  graduation,  £1$  and  a  small 
fee  from  their  pupils.  Towards  the  end  of  the  century  the 
salaries  were  increased  but  only  to  a  small  extent.  The  emolu- 
ments of  the  Professors  depended  largely  on  fees  which  Professor 
Reid  thought  greatly  promoted  their  zeal  and  diligence,  adding 
with  gentle  cynicism,  "  few  persons  are  willing  to  labour,  who,  by 
doing  little,  or  by  following  their  amusement,  find  themselves  in 
easy  and  comfortable  circumstances  I" 

Residence  and  a  common  table  though  much  approved  by 
some  members  of  the  Faculty  were  not  regarded  with  general 
favour  by  the  students.  The  rigid  espionage  of  a  lad's  every 
movement,  extending  even  to  discovering  "  what  conscience  each 
makes  of  private  devotions  morning  and  evening,"  and  the 
penalties  attached  to  uttering  a  single  word  in  the  vernacular  were 
vexatious-.     This  insistence  on  countless  frivolous  observances, 

*  OM  Statistical  Account  of  Glasgow  University,  p.  33,  1 799. 

-  Muiiinic-Hta,  il,  489.  The  Regents  in  turn  took  weekly  office  as  TIcbdomad.ir, 
whose  duty  it  was  to  visit  the  rooms  of  every  student  and  lake  note  of  the  breach  of 
any  of  the  intolerable  rules. 


232  THIRD   PERIOD.      GLASGOW   UNIVERSITY  [CH. 

combined  with  a  bill  of  fare  the  reverse  of  attractive,  resulted  in 
a  gradual  falling  away,  and  at  last  in  a  discontinuance  of  both 
residence  and  a  common  table.  A  system  so  unnatural  and  fruit- 
ful of  hypocrisy  was  certain  to  die  out.  It  was  not  given  up 
in  St  Andrews  till  1820.  In  Glasgow,  students  who  could  afford 
the  expense,  often  boarded  in  the  families  of  the  Professors. 
This  continued  also  a  long  time  in  King's  College,  Aberdeen 
and  also  in  Edinburgh. 

The  next  chair  founded  after  those  already  mentioned  was 
that  of  Astronomy  in  1760.  The  university  now  showed  signs 
of  considerable  activity.  Professor  Reid,  writing  in  1764  to  his 
friend  Dr  Skene,  states  that  there  are  commonly  four  or  five 
college  meetings  every  week,  that  a  literary  society  met  once  a 
week,  and  that  the  other  Arts  Professors  are  quite  as  busy  as 
himself.  There  are  now  fourteen  Professors  all  of  whom,  except 
one,  teach  at  least  one  hour  a  day.  Nearly  one  third  of  the 
students  are  Irish,  many  of  them,  like  the  Scots,  very  poor. 
There  are  also  a  good  many  Englishmen  and  some  foreigners. 
The  session  is  just  commencing  and  all  have  not  yet  come  up. 
When  fully  convened  about  300  are  expected.  The  Professors 
have  fine  houses  and  live  harmoniously  with  each  other, 
managing  their  political  differences  with  decency.  An  astro- 
nomical observatory  and  a  printing  house  have  been  supplied. 
His  (Professor  Reid's)  salary  has  touched  ^70  and  may  reach 
;^ioo  this  session  ^  How  far  even  this  modest  salary  would  cover 
household  expenses  may  be  gathered  from  what  Boston  has  said 
of  his  student  expenditure  for  three  years.  He  states  that  for 
sustenance,  fees  and  college  dues  it  amounted  to  ;^ii.  18s.  8d. 
sterling.  This  was  probably  supplemented  by  the  supply  of  oat 
and  barley  meal,  which  students  often  took  with  them  from 
home.  In  view  of  their  narrow  means  this  meal  was  exempted 
from  the  toll  of  the  "  ladleman  "  who  exacted  one  ladleful  from 
every  sack  of  meal.  It  is  not  irrelevant  to  suggest  that  Boston's 
extremely  frugal  habits,  combined  with  exhausting  work,  seriously 
injured  his  health  and  probably  account  for  the  dej^ressed  and 
depressing  character  of  his  religious  views. 

As  we  approach  the  end  of  the  century  there  appears  a  large 

^  Reid's  Works  (Hamilton's  edition),  i,  p.  40. 


XVIIl]        STIPENDS    AND    EXPENSES,      MEDICAL   STUDIES         233 

increase  in  the  number  of  students.  Within  thirty  years  it  had 
grown  from  about  300  to  700'.  In  1790  a  voluntary  subscriptic^n 
for  an  Infirmary  was  commenced.  In  the  following  year  a  Royal 
Charter  and  a  site  were  obtained  for  it.  In  1793  the  building 
was  completed,  and  in  1794  opened-. 

Before  the  century  was  ended  funds  were  bequeathed  for  the 
foundation  of  medical  bursaries  and  lectureships,  and  there  was 
added  to  the  university  the  noble  donation  of  the  Hunterian 
Museum  for  which  a  building  was  erected  in  1804^ 

The  opening  of  the  Infirmary  was  marked  by  a  large  increase 
in  the  number  of  medical  students.  In  the  first  fourteen  years 
of  the  19th  century  the  increase  was  astonishing,  though  there 
was  yet  no  Professor  of  Surgery  or  Midwifery.  In  1790  the 
number  of  medical  students  was  54.  From  this  time  there  was 
a  large  and  steady  growth  till  in  the  session  of  181 3-14  it 
reached  a  maximum  of  352,  owing  to  the  demand  for  army 
surgeons  during  the  protracted  Continental  wars  in  which  Britain 
had  a  share.  In  i860  the  number  was  256.  It  had  rivals  to 
contend  with  in  the  Andersonian  and  Portland  Street  Schools. 
There  were  considerable  fluctuations  in  the  attendance  according 
to  the  respective  popularity  of  the  professors  in  the  university 
and  the  two  schools  just  named.  There  was  no  love  lost  between 
the  university  and  these  rivals.  Into  this  our  limits  forbid  us  to 
enter.  The  Andersonian  is  still  a  medical  school  with  a  hiiih 
reputation.     The  other  has  disappeared^ 

Though  a  medical  incorporation  had  been  founded  in  Glasgow 
at  the  end  of  the  i6th  century,  and  though  the  university  was  an 
examining  and  degree-granting  body  for  nearly  fifty  years  before 
there  was  in  it  practically  any  efiective  medical  teaching,  it  was 
not  till  the  middle  of  the  i8th  century  that  medicine  was 
systematically  taughtl     For   this    there   were   several   reasons. 

1  University  of  Glasgoiv  Old  and  Ncio,  xxni. 

2  Old  Statistical  Aaoiott  of  Glasgow  University,  p.  50,  i  799. 
^  Old  Statistical  Account  of  Glasgow  University,  p.  31. 

*  Duncan's  Memorials  of  Glasgoiu  Facility  of  Physicians,  pp.   171 — 3. 

^  At  tliat  lime  [before  1750]  to  serve  an  apprenticeship  was  almost  the  only  way 
in  which  a  knowledge  of  medicine  could  be  acquired  in  Scotland.  Professorships  for 
teaching  some  of  its  Inanches  had  been  established  in  our  universities,  but  in  none  of 
them,  e.\cept  in  that  of  Edinburgh,  had  a  regular  school  for  teaching  medicine  been  as 
yet  formed.     Thomson's  Life  of  Cullen,  I,  3. 


234  THIRD    PERIOD.      GLASGOW   UNIVERSITY  [CH. 

The  Kirk  was  still  the  predominant  partner  in  university 
matters,  and  had  its  main  interest  in  the  Arts  Faculty  as 
furnishing  candidates  for  the  pulpit.  Another  was  that  there 
was  not  yet  an  Anatomy  Act,  and  materials  for  dissection  were 
scarce.  Yet  another  was  the  want  of  means.  Stimulated 
probably  by  rivalry  of  Edinburgh  which  had  a  medical  school  in 
1727,  encouraged  by  the  increase  in  the  number  of  students,  and 
stirred  into  life  by  the  vigour  and  versatility  of  William  Cullen 
and  his  successor  Joseph  Black,  Glasgow  was  in  possession 
of  systematic,  if  still  incomplete,  medical  teaching  shortly  after 
I750\ 

In  the  first  sixty  years  of  the  19th  century  twelve  new  chairs, 
the  majority  of  them  in  the  Medical  Faculty,  were  founded,  viz. 
Natural  History  (1807),  Surgery  (1815),  Midwifery  (1815), 
Chemistry  (1817),  Botany  (i 818),  Materia  Medica  (1831),  Insti- 
tutes of  Medicine  (1839),  Forensic  Medicine  (1839),  Civil  Engi- 
neering (1840),  Conveyancing  (1861),  English  Literature  (1861), 
Divinity  and  Biblical  Criticism  (1861)'^. 

Notwithstanding  the  great  advances  made  in  medical  equip- 
ment it  must  be  admitted  that  quackery  was  rampant,  and 
degrees  were  conferred  in  the  most  culpably  loose  way  till  early 
in  the  19th  century.  Degrees  were  bought  by  absolutely  illiterate 
people  without  examination  or  evidence  of  medical  study.  None 
of  the  universities  were  blameless,  but  Glasgow  was  not  worse 
than  her  neighbours  St  Andrews  and  Aberdeen,  which  were  the 
greatest  offenders.  By  the  College  of  Physicians  in  London, 
Scottish  degrees  were  regarded  with  contempt,  and  it  was  a 
long  time  before  even  the  high  reputation  of  Edinburgh  and 
Glasgow  lived  down  the  ill  repute. 

A  comparison  of  the  English  and  Scottish  medical  training 
furnishes  no  warrant  for  this  superior  contempt.  In  1617 
apothecaries  in  England  were  formed  into  a  distinct  corporation, 
and  from  that  date  the  English  student  commenced  his  medical 
career  by  being  apprenticed,  about  the  age  of  14,  to  an  apothe- 
cary. Except  for  the  few  who  graduated  in  medicine  at  Oxford 
or  Cambridge,  this  was  the  only  channel  of  approach  to  the 

1  Duncan's  Aletjioriah  of  Glasgmv  Facully  of  Physicians,  pp    125—8. 

2  University  of  Glasgow  Old  and  New,  xxiv. 


XVril]        IMPROVEMENTS    IN    THE   STUDY   OF    MEDICINE  235 

position  of  licentiate.  The  Act  of  i<Si5  made  this  course  im- 
perative. The  apprenticeship  was  originally  for  five  years,  the 
first  of  which  was  often  spent  in  doing  the  work  of  a  surgery  boy, 
compounding  pills  and  potions,  running  errands  and  so  forth. 
During  the  remaining  years  he  acquired  empirically  some  know- 
ledge of  such  medical  practice  as  came  in  his  master's  way. 
After  this  a  year's  medical  study  in  hospital  or  elsewhere  followed 
by  a  single  successful  examination  gave  him  the  position  of 
licentiate.  The  course  was  subsequently  modified,  three  years 
being  given  to  the  apprenticeship,  and  nearly  three  to  regular 
medical  study,  and  the  examination  might  be  passed  at  the  age 
of  21.  In  1858  the  Medical  Act  abolished  apprenticeship,  and 
four  years  were  given  to  medical  study.  In  Scotland  the 
medical  student  seldom  commenced  his  studies  before  17,  and 
the  "  changes  introduced  by  the  Act  of  1858  into  English  medical 
education  were,  in  a  great  measure,  those  which  had  been  in 
operation  in  Scotland  long  before,  under  the  influence  of  the 
three  teaching  universities,  and  the  medical  schools  associated 
with  them  in  Edinburgh,  Glasgow  and  Aberdeen'." 

Better  times  were  at  hand.  The  medical  professors  were  less 
tied  down  by  tradition  and  the  prejudices  of  old  institutions  than 
some  of  the  other'  members  of  the  academic  body  and  adapted 
their  teaching  to  the  progress  of  knowledge  and  discovery  in  the 
subjects  of  botany,  natural  history,  and  chemistry.  Professor 
Reid  writing  near  the  end  of  the  century  shows  that  then  a  posi- 
tion in  organisation  and  graduation  fairly  similar  to  present  day 
arrangements  had  been  reached.  The  Arts  curriculum  was 
Latin,  Greek,  Logic,  Moral  Philosophy,  Mathematics  and  Natural 
Philosophy,  which  remained  unchanged  for  graduation  in  Arts 
for  nearly  a  century,  the  only  addition  being  English  Literature, 
the  chair  of  which  was  not  founded  till  1861.  Candidates  for 
degree  or  entrance  on  the  study  of  Theology  were  required  to 
have  attended  the  classes  in  the  curriculum.  To  defend  a  thesis 
by  public  disputation  was  part  of  the  ordeal  for  graduation,  but  it 
gradually  became  a  formal  proceeding,  and  was  discontinued  or 
made  optional.  Examination  in  all  the  subjects  was  imperative. 
Similarly  for  degrees  in  medicine  a  complete  attendance  at  the 

'  Sir  William  Gairdncr's  IiUioductory  Address  in  1S82. 


236  THIRD   PERIOD.      GLASGOW   UNIVERSITY       [CH.  XVIII 

medical  course,  and  an  examination  public  and  private  [probably 
individual  and  oral]  on  all  the  different  branches  of  medicine 
were  necessary  for  degree.  In  Theology  and  Law  degrees  were 
conferred  honoris  catisa^. 

Professor  Reid's  account  may  be  summarised  by  saying  that 
after  many  ups  and  downs,  the  university  was  by  favourable 
conjunctures  prosperous,  its  situation  satisfactory,  its  revenues 
sufficient  with  economy  for  its  wants,  and  not  so  large  as  to 
encourage  idleness  or  learned  indolence,  its  institutions  open  to 
all,  and  its  discipline  moderate  by  substituting  parental  watch- 
fulness for  vexatious  espionage. 

At  the  end  of  the  i8th  century  the  number  of  its  students 
was  800. 

Before  the  passing  of  the  Act  of  1858  the  business  of  the 
university  was  managed  by  three  bodies — the  Faculty,  the  Senate 
and  the  Comitia.  The  Faculty,  consisting  of  the  Principal  and 
Professors  of  all  chairs  founded  before  1807,  administered  the 
whole  property  of  the  university,  and  with  the  assistance  of  the 
Rector  and  Dean  of  Faculties  appointed  professors.  The  Senate 
consisted  of  the  Rector,  Dean  of  Faculties,  Principal,  and  all 
Professors,  including  those  chairs  founded  between  1807  and  1840. 
They  met  for  conference  about  degrees,  libraries,  &c.  The 
Comitia  was  the  same  body  as  the  Senate  with  the  addition  of 
matriculated  students.  Meetings  of  the  Comitia  were  held  for 
the  election  of  Rector  by  the  four  '  nations.' 

Students  in  Arts  were  obliged  to  take  classes  in  a  certain  order, 
passing  by  means  of  the  Blackstone  examination^  from  Latin  to 
Greek,  from  Greek  to  Logic  and  so  on,  till  they  reached  Natural 
Philosophy,  after  which  they  were  open  to  examination  for 
degree,  and  were  called  magistrands.  The  fees  payable  for 
graduation  varied  according  to  the  circumstances  of  the  students, 
and  were  fixed  by  stentmasters  who  ascertained  their  respective 
means.     Each  '  nation  '  named  a  stentmaster. 

1   Old  Statistical  Account  of  Scotland,  Vol.  x.xi,  pp.  46,  47,  1799. 

^  This  examination  was  meant  to  test  in  quite  a  gentle  way  how  far  the  student's 
past  work  fitted  him  for  entering  the  next  class  in  the  curriculum.  It  derived  its 
name  from  the  chair  on  which  the  student  sat,  part  of  the  seat  of  which  was  a  black 
stone. 


CHAPTER    XIX 

THIRD   PERIOD  (1696  TO  1858).     ABERDEEN   KING'S    COLLEGE 

The  century  preceding  the  Revolution,  with  ever-recurring 
changes  in  staff  and  administration,  had  such  an  injurious  influence 
on  university  life  that  even  the  stimulus  of  rivalry  between  the 
two  universities  in  Aberdeen  could  only  partially  counteract  it. 
The  animosity  and  wrangling  shown  on  both  sides,  though 
undignified,  had  probably  one  good  result.  It  made  them  try 
to  outstrip  each  other  in  aiming  at  fuller  equipment  of  chairs, 
Marischal  College  as  usual  leading  the  way.  At  the  beginning 
of  the  1 8th  century,  laxity  in  many  respects  was  the  characteristic 
of  King's  College.  Nepotism  had  crept  in,  and,  to  guard  against 
suspected  corruption,  a  commission  decided  that  election  to 
appointments  should  be  settled  by  examination  1. 

Buildings  were  dilapidated;  no  records  of  graduation  had 
been  kept  for  over  ten  years;  the  Chancellorship  was  vacant  for 
twelve  and  the  Rectorship  for  five  years.  For  negligence  in  these 
latter  respects  the  authorities  cannot  escape  censure.  These 
officials  were  not,  as  now,  almost  purely  honorary,  but  had 
attached  to  them  important  functions,  the  performance  of  which 
was  essential  to  efficient  administration.  The  Chancellor  was 
the  final  court  of  appeal  in  professorial  quarrels,  he  was  con- 
sulted about  the  filling  up  of  vacancies,  and  sometimes  the 
patronage  was  put  in  his  charge. 

Finances  also  were  at  a  very  low  ebb  ;  some  of  the  students' 
rooms  were  ruinous,  and  no  funds  for  rebuilding  them  were 
available;  the  conduct  of  bursars  was  unsatisfactory;  gowns  were 

1  Bulloch's  University  of  Aberdeen,  p-  133- 


238  THIRD    PERIOD.      ABERDEEN    KING'S   COLLEGE  [CH. 

not  worn,  and  public  prayers  not  kept.  Efforts  to  correct  all 
this  were  made,  but  with  only  partial  success.  We  find  that,  up 
to  1 7 16,  there  are  periods  of  considerable  length,  of  which 
minutes  were  either  not  kept,  or  have  been  lost. 

The  Commission  of  1690  which  finished  its  work  in  1700 
insisted  on  the  institution  of  a  separate  Greek  Chair.  In 
1703  Bower  was  elected  lecturer  in  Mathematics,  but  the 
"  class  turned  to  little  account."  He  seems  never  to  have 
taught  at  all,  and  resigned  in  1717^  There  appears  to  have 
been  an  attempted  revival  of  the  lectureship  in  1732,  but  the  final 
establishment  of  the  Chair  was  not  made  till  1800,  when  Jack 
and  Duncan  were  appointed  Professors  of  Mathematics  and 
Natural  Philosophy  respectively-. 

There  is  evidence  at  this  time  of  breaches  of  discipline,  such 
as  riots  and  release  of  prisoners  from  the  Tolbooth.  Laxity  of 
this  kind  is  found  in  all  universities,  and,  though  calling  for 
punishment,  may  have  youthful  folly  urged  as  a  palliative.  But 
the  circulation  of  scurrilous  verses,  holding  up  to  ridicule  the 
weaknesses  of  Professors,  bodes  ill  for  academic  welfare^. 

There  were  also  bickerings  at  Senatus  meetings  about  the 
election  of  Regents.  The  Professors  of  Oriental  Languages  and 
Mathematics  claimed  the  right  to  vote.  The  Principal  denied 
their  right,  on  the  ground  that  they  were  not  named  in  the 
original  foundation.  The  case  was  taken  to  the  Court  of  Session, 
which  decided  that  they  had  the  right.  It  would  seem  from  this 
that  in  the  Senatus  matters  were  far  from  comfortable. 

Queen  Anne  continued  to  show  the  traditional  interest  of  the 
Stuarts  in  the  northern  universities,  by  granting,  the  year  before 
her  death,  an  annual  sum  of  ;^2io  sterling,  to  be  divided  equally 

^  lie  was  to  have  a  salary  of  200  merks  and  "l)e  made  free  of  the  College  table 
during  the  winter  session."     This  salary  was  paid  from  a  tax  on  ale  sold  in  the  town. 
Kennedy's  Annals  oj  Aberdeen,  vol.  11,  p.  381. 
^  Bulloch's  University  of  Aberdeen,  p.  138. 

3  In  the  "Student's  Liturgy"  there  is  a  "Description  of  the  useless,  needless, 
headless,  defective,  elective  Masters  of  the  King's  Colledge  of  Aberdeen  1709."  All 
the  verses  are  very  poor.  The  least  offensive  and,  in  comparison  with  the  others, 
almost  kindly  deal  with  Urquhart  the  Mediciner. 

From  ane  old  Physick  doctor  that  cairs  not  for  pelf, 
Thinks  every  man  honest  just  like  himself. 
Libera  nos  Domine. 


XIX]  INTERNAL   DISPUTES   AND   JACOBITISM  239 

between  King's  and  Marischal  Colleges  for  the  benefit  (^f  the 
Principals  and  Professors. 

Here,  as  elsewhere,  the  Rebellion  of  171 5  was  a  greatly 
disturbing  element,  and  doubtless  injuriously  affected  King's 
College.  To  what  extent  it  did  so  is  not  exactly  known, 
owing  to  the  absence  of  minutes  for  that  year.  It  of  course 
made  much  difference  to  Marischal  College,  because  Earl 
Marischal  was  outlawed  and  his  estates  confiscated.  It  is 
known  that,  in  17 16,  students  were  expelled  for  showing 
sympathy  with  the  Pretender,  under  the  name  of  James  VIII, 
by  drinking  his  health  and  kindling  bonfires  in  his  honour. 

In  the  following  year  a  Royal  Commission  was  appointed  to 
visit  the  colleges,  the  result  of  which  was  the  deposition  of 
almost  the  whole  staff,  because  of  their  Jacobite  leanings.  After 
this  sweeping  clearance  of  a  body  of  men,  whose  tendency  was 
to  obstruct  rather  than  promote  progress,  there  followed  a  period 
of  over  a  hundred  years,  during  which  neither  commissions  nor 
visitations  gave  trouble,  and  reform  was  thus  facilitated.  P>ee- 
dom  from  interference  allowed  the  authorities  to  think  of  altering 
both  the  matter  and  method  of  university  study,  and  giving  it  a 
more  popular  character. 

An  arrangement  was  made  in  1720  and  carried  out  for  at 
least  one  session,  for  the  delivery  of  public  lectures  by  the 
Regents  in  turn  before  the  whole  college.  It  does  not  appear 
that  this  was  repeated.  About  this  time  also  a  munificent  gift 
was  made  to  the  college  by  Dr  James  Fraser  for  repair  of  the 
dilapidation  of  buildings.  He  also  made  a  handsome  contribu- 
tion of  books  for  the  library,  and  in  his  will  bequeathed  large 
sums  for  bursaries,  a  salary  for  the  librarian,  and  the  purchase  of 
mathematical  instruments^ 

From  the  middle  to  the  end  of  the  i8th  century  information 
about  the  history  of  the  college  is  scanty,  owing  to  irregular 
registration  and  recording  of  the  minutes  of  the  Senatus.  The 
Rebellion  of  1745  seems  to  have  arou.sed  little  interest  within 
the  college  walls,  and  to  have  been  thought  worthy  of  nothing 
more  than  an  incidental  and  almost  colourless  reference. 

^  Rail's  University  of  Aberdeen,  p.  194. 


240  THIRD    PERIOD.      ABERDEEN    KING'S   COLLEGE  [CH. 

But,  though  the  condition  of  this  and  other  universities  was, 
at  this  time,  in  many  respects  far  from  satisfact  Dry,  there  is,  from 
the  last  quarter  of  the  17th  to  the  end  of  the  i8th  century,  no 
scarcity  of  great  Scotsmen,  whose  names  have  come  down  to 
us,  permanently  inscribed  on  the  roll  of  fame,  for  eminence  in 
almost  every  branch  of  academic  culture.  Among  the  most 
conspicuous  names  connected  with  Aberdeen  are  the  Gregorys — 
father,  son,  and  grandsons — all  of  whom  occupied  with  distin- 
guished ability  Chairs  in  Art,  Science,  or  Medicine,  in  one  or  other 
of  the  Universities  of  St  Andrews,  Aberdeen,  and  Edinburgh. 
We  have  also  Colin  Maclaurin,  a  mathematician  of  the  first  rank, 
Professor  of  Mathematics  in  Marischal  College,  and  afterwards 
in  Edinburgh;  Thomas  Blackwell,  Professor  of  Greek  in  Maris- 
chal College;  James  Beattie,  poet,  essayist,  and  Professor 
of  Moral  Philosophy  in  Marischal  College.  Contemporary  with 
these  there  are  five  whose  names  cannot  be  passed  over — Adam 
Smith,  the  founder  of  Political  Economy  as  a  separate  branch 
of  human  knowledge,  and  Professor  of  Moral  Philosophy  in  Glas- 
gow ;  David  Hume,  philosopher  and  essayist  ;  Lord  Monboddo, 
who  studied  in  Marischal  College  and  was  raised  to  the  Bench 
in  1767;  Thomas  Reid,  the  head  of  the  Scottish  School  of 
Philosophy,  Professor  of  Philosophy  in  King's  College,  Aberdeen, 
and  afterwards  of  Moral  Philosophy  in  Glasgow;  and  lastly  Sir 
Walter  Scott.  Of  these  five,  Monboddo  and  Reid  alone  had  any 
connection  with  Aberdeen.  Hume  was  twice  an  unsuccessful 
candidate  for  a  Chair  of  Moral  Philosophy  in  Edinburgh,  and  of 
Logic  in  Glasgow.  The  list  of  eminent  Scotsmen  could  be 
lengthened  by  the  addition  of  such  names  as  James  Watt,  Allan 
Ramsay,  Boswell,  biographer  of  Dr  Johnson,  Lord  Hailes  and 
Lord  Kames,  both  of  whom  were  raised  to  the  Bench,  and  had 
earned  a  reputation  beyond  their  native  country  as  men  of 
learning  and  capacity.  Enough  has  perhaps  been  said  to 
warrant  the  statement  that,  notwithstanding  the  considerable 
laxity  which  characterised  some  university  matters  at  this 
time,  the  century,  which  has  placed  on  its  permanent  roll  of 
great  names  those  recorded  above,  is  one  of  which  we  have 
no  reason  to  be  ashamed.  An  estimate  of  the  intellectual 
condition   of  the   middle  and   end   of  the    century   would   not, 


XIX]    INTELLECTUAL  BRILLIANCY  OF  THE   I  8th  CENTURY    24I 

however,  be  complete,  which  did  not  advert  to  the  fact  that 
the  prevailing  trend  of  thought  was  secular  rather  than  religious 
or  theological.  Ecclesiastical  matters  had  lost  much  of  their 
interest  and  prominence,  and  their  place  had  been  largely 
taken  by  metaphysics,  philosophy,  and  science,  in  Adam  Smith's 
Wealth  of  Nations,  Hume's  Treatise  of  Human  Nature,  and 
Reid's  Inquiry  into  the  Human  Mind.  While  Professor 
Gregory's  statement  that  "absolute  dogmatic  atheism  was 
the  present  tone  of  intellectual  society"  was  probably  an 
exaggeration,  it  contained  an  appreciable  amount  of  truth. 

When  in  175  i  Thomas  Reid  was  appointed  to  the  Chair  of 
Moral  Philosophy  in  King's  College,  the  system  of  '  regenting' 
had  been  abolished  in  Edinburgh  and  Glasgow,  but  the  King's 
College  authorities  clung  to  the  old  system,  and  were  backed  up 
by  Reid  who,  though  he  saw  that  the  Arts  curriculum  required 
important  alterations,  maintained  that  'regenting'  had  a  moral 
influence  on  the  students,  and  argued  that  every  Regent  was 
"a  Tutor  to  those  who  study  under  him  ;  has  the  whole  direction 
of  their  studies;  the  training  of  their  minds;  the  oversight  of 
their  manners;  and  it  must  be  detrimental  to  a  student  to  change 
his  Tutor  every  session'."  This  view  coupled  with  the  traditional 
conservatism  of  the  college  probably  accounts  for  their  retention 
of  the  old  system  till  the  end  of  the  century. 

The  Regents  of  Philosophy  had  come  to  realise  the  barrenness 
of  the  scholastic  Logic  and  Metaphysics,  and  decided  to  confine 
their  teaching  to  such  parts  of  them  as  were  practical  and 
useful. 

The  bursars'  work  seems  to  have  been  marked  by  the  laxity 
already  referred  to,  and  it  became  necessary  to  threaten  them 
with  withdrawal  of  their  emoluments,  unless  they  showed  satis- 
factory proficiency  in  their  studies.  The  habit  of  living  outside 
the  college  was  also  increasing,  and  it  was  laid  down  in  1753 
"that  for  the  future  all  the  students  shall  lodge  in  rooms  within 
the  college,  and  eat  at  the  College  table  during  the  whole  session." 
With  our  modern  ideas,  there  seems  to  have  been  good  reason  for 
complaint  by  some  students  at  this  period  about  the  supply  of 

'  Bulloch's  University  of  A bercUfn,  p.  151. 
K.  E.  16 


242  THIRD    PERIOD.      ABERDEEN    KING'S   COLLEGE  [CH. 

food,  and  little  wonder  that  it  was  necessary  to  have  recourse  to 
compulsion  to  make  students  eat  at  the  common  tabled 

The  attempt  to  enforce  residence  was  for  a  considerable  time 
successful,  but  it  gradually  lost  its  force,  and  1824 — 5  was  the 
last  session  of  residence.  Continuous  espionage  at  prayer,  meals, 
and  in  private  rooms  had,  as  in  Glasgow,  become  intolerable. 

Up  to  this  time  the  degree  of  M.D.  had  been,  as  in  Glasgow, 
conferred  on  the  recommendation  of  well-known  doctors,  but 
Dr  Chalmers,  the  Mediciner,  anxious  to  promote  medical  teaching, 
prepared  an  examination  paper  in  1789  as  under. 

"(i)  What  are  the  principal  peculiarities  in  the  structure  of 
the  foetus,  and  are  there  any  impediments  to  seeing  or  hearing 
at  birth  ?     What  are  they  .? 

(2)  In  how  far  may  Acrimony  be  considered  as  existing 
in  the  system,  and  what  are  its  effects .'' 

(3)  In  what  proportion  of  our  present  diseases  may  debility 
be  supposed  to  take  place,  and  how  may  it  effectually  be 
obviated  .-' 

(4)  What  are  the  advantages  resulting  from  the  Brownonian 
doctrine?" 

Dr  Chalmers  with  the  approval  of  the  Senatus  in  1792  renewed 
his  attempt  to  revive  medical  teaching,  but  he  died  soon  after, 
and  the  proposal  fell  to  the  ground. 

At  this  time  also  (1792)  an  attempt  was  made  to  abolish 
'  regenting,'  but  the  professorial  system  was  not  adopted  till 
1799.  In  the  following  year  somewhat  stricter  rules  were  laid 
down  for  graduation  in  Arts.  A  complete  attendance  at  all  the 
classes  in  the  philosophical  course  was  imperative,  but  even  as 
late  as  1826  there  was  no  examination  worthy  of  the  name. 
The  Professor  of  Natural  Philosophy  set  a  paper  on  Mathematics 
and  Natural  Philosophy,  but  the  commissioners  say  "there  is  no 
instance  of  anyone  being  prevented  from  taking  the  degree  in 
consequence  of  this  examination." 

1  There  were  two  tables.  For  a  seat  at  the  first  an  additional  fee  had  to  be  paid. 
Those  who  could  not  afford  this  fee  sat  at  the  second,  for  which  the  supper  fare  was 
"sowens,  or  bread  with  ale  or  milk,"  while  at  the  first  there  were  provided  "eggs, 
or  sowens,  or  roots,  or  pancakes,  or  bread  and  butter,  or  ox  cheek  or  Finnan  haddocks 
and  ale."  Rait's  Aberdeen,  p.  204.  The  bill  of  fare  for  dinner,  though  far  from 
luxurious,  was  somewhat  better,  and  varied  from  day  to  day. 


XIX]  EXAMINATIONS   AND   THK    MEDICAL   SCHOOL  243 

Degrees  in  Medicine  were  dealt  with  in  a  much  more  satis- 
factory way  in  1 8 17.  Evidence  of  classical,  h'terary,  and  scientific 
education  was  insisted  on.  It  was  necessary  that  the  candidate 
should  have  attended  certain  courses  of  lectures,  passed  certain 
public  examinations,  and  produced  evidence  of  practice  signed 
by  two  physicians,  graduates  in  Medicine.  From  this,  it  may 
be  said,  the  Aberdeen  Medical  School  took  its  rise,  for  in 
the  following  year  the  members  of  both  colleges  agreed  to  the 
establishment  of  a  joint  medical  school'. 

The  impulse  towards  more  thorough  medical  education  came 
from  Marischal  College.  When  the  joint  school  was  established 
there  were  medical  classes  in  Marischal,  but  none  in  King's. 
The  strong  feeling  of  jealousy  between  the  two  colleges  deprived 
the  scheme  of  hearty  support. 

That  the  work  of  King's  College  was,  in  several  respects, 
culpably  loose,  is  evident  from  the  Chancellor's  finding  it 
necessary,  in  1824,  to  make  to  the  Senatus  the  most  reasonable 
suggestion,  that  the  Principal,  the  Civilist,  and  the  Mediciner, 
should  discharge  the  several  duties  of  teaching  Divinity,  Law,  and 
Medicine,  to  which  they  had  been  appointed,  and  for  which  they 
were  paid.  When  the  Senatus  conveyed  this  suggestion  to  these 
officials,  they  all  with  one  consent  began  to  make  excuse;  the 
Principal,  that  he  was  officially  exempted  from  teaching  Divinity, 
the  Mediciner,  that  his  health  was  bad,  and  the  Civilist,  that  he  was 
too  old.  The  question  was  handed  over  to  a  committee,  whose 
injunction  to  the  simple  discharge  of  duty  had  only  the  meagre 
result,  that  the  Civilist  gave  a  few  lectures,  and  the  other  two  did 
nothing.  In  other  words  the  Chairs  of  Medicine' and  Law  were 
mere  sinecures. 

In  these  circumstances,  it  is  not  matter  for  surprise  that 
reasons  were  found  for  discontinuing  the  scheme  of  a  joint 
medical  school  between  the  two  colleges.  The  Senatus  of  King's 
charged  the  authorities  of  Marischal  College  with  "laying  aside 
the  rules  "  for  the  conferment  of  medical  degrees,  and  with  other 
infringements  of  the  agreement  entered  into ;  and  by  unani- 
mous resolution  the  scheme  came  to  an  end  in  1839,  after  being 
in  existence  for  about  twenty  years.     There  is  a  very  strong 

'  For  the  Articles  of  Agreement  see  Appendix  A,  p.  247. 

16 — 2 


244  THIRD    PERIOD.      ABERDEEN    KING'S   COLLEGE  [CII. 

presumption  of  an  absence  of  uniformity  in  either  the  teaching 
or  examination,  from  the  fact  that,  between  1825  and  1839,  there 
were  only  three  medical  degrees  conferred  by  King's,  and 
twenty-five  by  Marischal  College\ 

It  now  became  necessary  for  King's  College  to  reorganise  a 
separate  medical  staff  for  itself. 

The  Professorship  of  Medicine  had  just  been  filled  by  William 
Gregory,  grandson  of  John  Gregory  who,  a  little  less  than  a 
century  before,  had  been  Mediciner  in  King's  College.  He  had 
taught  in  Dublin  and  Glasgow,  and,  after  occupying  the  Aberdeen 
Chair  for  five  years,  was  appointed  Professor  of  Chemistry  in 
Edinburgh,  a  Chair  which  he  occupied  till  his  death  in  1858. 
With  the  help  of  an  energetic  medical  committee,  of  which  he 
was  the  convener,  he  was  able  to  advertise,  for  the  opening  of 
the  session  in  October,  classes  for  Materia  Medica,  Physiology, 
Botany,  Midwifery,  Surgery,  and  Medical  Jurisprudence. 

With  a  view  to  improvement  of  the  Arts  curriculum,  a 
Parliamentary  Commission  was  appointed  in  1826,  and  its  report 
was  printed  in  1831.  By  it  the  Rector  and  four  assessors  were 
constituted  a  Court  having  control  over  the  university,  and  were 
also  a  Court  of  Appeal,  whose  decisions  might  be  subject  to 
review  by  the  Chancellor.  King's  College  had  then  an  attend- 
ance of  235,  of  whom  more  than  half  had  bursaries.  The  average 
age  of  entrants  was  14.  The  classical  attainments  were  conse- 
quently poor,  and  it  was  decided  that  Latin  and  Greek  should 
be  taught  throughout  the  whole  course  thus: 

Bajan  year — Latin  and  Greek. 

Semi  year — Chemistry,  Mathematics,  Latin  and  Greek. 

Tertian  year — Natural  Philosophy,  Mathematics,  Latin  and 
Greek. 

Magistrand  year — Moral  Philosophy,  Logic,  Rhetoric,  Latin 
and  Greek 2. 

All  these  classes  were  imperative  for  bursars,  and  for  others 
optional.  The  classical  books  to  be  read  included,  among  others, 
Tacitus,  Juvenal,  Thucydides  and  the  Greek  poets.  In  this 
rearrangement  of  the  Arts  curriculum  we  have,  in  comparison 

^   Bulloch's  University  of  Aberdeen,  p.  187. 
^  Bulloch's  University  of  Aberdeen,  p.  183. 


XIX]  THE   CURRICULUM    IN    ARTS  245 

with  that  of  the  southern  universities,  evidence  of  the  greater 
attention  paid  to  classical  learninc^  in  Aberdeen,  which  has  been 
its  characteristic  feature  throughout. 

The  programme  for  Natural  and  Moral  Philosophy  was  of 
the  same  satisfactory  character.  Some  suggestions  about  the 
comparative  importance  of  Mathematics,  Moral  Philosophy  and 
Political  Economy  were  not  carried  out. 

Examination  was  by  this  time  fully  established  as  the  only 
channel  by  which  graduation  could  be  reached.  The  pitch 
was  satisfactorily  high,  the  subjects  sufficiently  numerous,  and 
remained  practically  unchanged  for  the  next  forty  years.  One 
third  of  full  marks  was  requisite  for  a  pass.  The  candidate 
for  a  simple  pass  at  that  time  had  a  less  toilsome  ascent  to 
climb  at  Oxford  or  Cambridge  than  at  Aberdeen. 

As  an  encouragement  to  industry  in  the  Arts  classes,  prizes 
were  offered,  and  awarded  by  the  votes  of  the  students.  This 
was  found  to  work  satisfactorily  for  some  time,  but  in  1833  it 
was  discontinued,  and  merit  was  thereafter  determined  by 
examination.  The  Commission  of  1826  suggested  increase  in 
the  amount  of  teaching  in  the  junior  Humanity  class,  and  the 
addition  of  a  third  class  in  Greek,  which  should  be  optional. 
Both  suggestions  were,  but  only  after  a  long  delay,  adopted. 

The  mode  of  electing  the  Rector  had  undergone  a  number  of 
changes  into  which  it  is  unnecessary  to  enter.  After  consider- 
able discussion  as  to  who  were,  according  to  Bishop  Elphin- 
stone's  foundation,  the  proper  electors,  it  was  agreed  after  a 
conference  between  the  Senatus  and  the  graduates  in  1856  that 
the  Lord  Rector  should  be  chosen  by  the  Masters  of  Arts,  and 
that  the  Senatus  should  confirm  the  election  so  made'.  On  this 
occasion  Lord  Ellesmere  was  elected,  and  on  his  death  in  the 
following  year,  John,  afterwards  Lord  Inglis,  Lord  President  of 
the  Court  of  Session,  succeeded  him  and  was  the  last  Rector  of 
King's  College. 

Since  the  donation  by  Queen  Anne  in  17 13  already  referred 
to  (p.  238),  a  large  number  of  valuable  gifts  had  been  made  to 
the  university,  some  for  bursaries,  some  for  Sunday  lectures  and 
Murtle  lectures.     Among  the  most  important  are  the   Button 

'   P.  J.  Anderson's  Officers  and  Graduates  of  King's  College,  p.  21. 


24.6  THIRD  PERIOD.   ABERDEEN  KING'S  COLLEGE     [CH. 

Foundation,  and  the  Simpson  prizes  of  £60  each.  The  Hutton 
for  some  t\vent)'-five  years  after  the  union  was  awarded  to  the 
best  student  in  Classics  and  Philosophy  combined.  It  is  now 
a  philosophical  prize.  The  Simpson  prizes  were  awarded,  one 
for  excellence  in  classics,  the  other  for  excellence  in  mathematics, 
an  arrangement  which  still  holds. 

The  permanent  union  of  the  two  colleges  was  completed  by 
the  Commissioners  of  1858.  Since  i860  they  exist  as  the 
University  of  Aberdeen. 

At  the  Union  the  buildings  of  both  colleges  were  retained, 
Arts,  Divinity  and  the  Library  being  assigned  to  King's  College, 
Law  and  Medicine  to  Marischal.  Dr  Dewar,  Principal  of  the 
latter,  was  in  poor  health,  and  Principal  Campbell  of  King's 
College  became  the  first  Principal  of  the  University  of  Aberdeen. 
Both  Chancellors,  the  fifth  Duke  of  Richmond,  and  the  fourth 
Earl  of  Aberdeen,  were  retained,  but  within  three  months 
both  died,  and  the  sixth  Duke  of  Richmond  was  elected 
Chancellor. 

In  dealing  with  the  double  Chairs  all  the  senior  Professors 
retired.  One,  Clerk  Maxwell,  though  junior  Professor  of  Natural 
Philosophy  in  Marischal  College,  retired  in  favour  of  Professor 
Thomson  his  senior.  This  was  thought  to  be  on  the  appeal 
of  Professor  Thomson,  who  had  a  young  family  and  limited 
means,  while  Clerk  Maxwell  had  a  private  fortune,  and  probably 
was  not  at  all  sorry  to  retire. 

The  union  made  an  extension  of  the  buildings  of  King's 
College  necessary,  at  a  cost  of  ;^20,ooo.  Six  new  Chairs  were 
created,  Logic,  Biblical  Criticism,  Physiology,  Materia  Medica, 
Midwifery  and  Botany.  Medicine  was  at  last  satisfactorily 
equipped.  The  Act  of  1858  gave  to  Aberdeen,  as  to  the  other 
universities,  a  University  Court,  and  a  General  Council,  and, 
under  the  "  Representation  of  the  People  (Scotland)  Act,"  along 
with  Glasgow,  a  Member  of  Parliament. 


XIX]  APPENDICES  247 

APPENDIX   A. 

Articles  of  Agreement  for  Joint  Medical  School. 

(i)  The  two  universities  to  have  equal  power  over  the 
Medical  School. 

(2)  Courses  of  lectures  to  be  given  during  the  winter  session 
on  the  following  subjects: — Anatomy,  Animal  Economy,  Surgery, 
Practice  of  Physic,  Theory  of  Physic,  Materia  Medica,  Clinical 
Medicine,  and  Midwifery,  and  a  course  of  lectures  on  Botany 
during  the  summer. 

(3)  Lecturers  to  be  appointed  or  confirmed  before  the 
ensuing  session. 

(4)  The  nomination  of  lecturers  to  be  alternate,  and  the 
nominations  of  one  university  to  be  confirmed  by  the  other. 

(5)  The  already  existing  Marischal  College  lecturers  in 
Anatomy,  Surgery  and  Materia  Medica  to  be  confirmed  by 
King's  College  and  that  body  to  have  the  first  nomination  of  the 
other  lecturers. 

(6)  The  Theory  and  Practice  of  Physic  to  be  reserved  "in 
case  the  Professors  of  Medicine  at  either  college  should  at  any 
time  wish  to  give  courses  of  lectures." 

(7)  The  lecturers  to  give  regular  courses. 

(8)  Appointments  to  be  made  within  six  months. 

(9)  Standing  committees  of  both  colleges  to  co-operate  in 
organising  and  managing  the  school. 

(10)  An  equal  number  of  classes  to  be  taught  at  each 
college;  the  anatomy  class  to  meet  at  Marischal  as  hitherto. 

APPENDIX    P. 

The  minimum  specified  for  graduation  in  the  Senatus  minute 
of  Nov.  1834  was  as  under  : — 

Latin — Horace,  Odes,  two  books;  Virgil,  Aeneid,  two  first 

books ;  Cicero,  Tiisadan  Questions,  first  book. 
Greek — Xenophon,  A?iabasis,  first  book;   New  Testament, 
two  Gospels  ;   Homer,  two  books. 


248       THIRD    PERIOD.      ABERDEEN    KING'S   COLLEGE      [CH.  XIX 

Mathematics — Euclid,  first  six  books;  Plane  Trigonometry, 
In  Algebra,  Simple  and  Quadratic  Equations. 

Chemistry — Leading  doctrines  of  Chemistry  and  Geology, 
as  taup^ht  in  the  class. 

Natural  Philosophy — Leading  doctrines  of  Natural  Philo- 
sophy, as  taught  in  the  class,  or  Playfair's  Outlines. 

Moral  Philosophy — Leading  doctrines  of  Moral  Philosophy, 
as  taught  in  the  class,  or  Stewart's  Outlines. 
The  above  is  practically  the  same  as  in  Glasgow  except  that, 
in  Glasgow,  Chemistry  and  Geology  were  not  specified. 


CHAPTER    XX 

THIRD    PERIOD   (1696  to  1858).      MARISCHAL  COLLEGE 

We  have  seen  in  our  second  period  that  Marischal  College, 
in  its  internal  economy  as  a  teaching  institution,  was  not 
seriously  affected  by  either  the  Restoration  or  the  Revolution. 

In  1690  parliament  no  doubt  passed  a  measure  making 
subscription  to  the  Confession  of  Faith  for  the  satisfaction  of 
the  Church,  and  the  Oath  of  Allegiance  for  the  satisfaction  of 
the  Crown,  imperative  on  all  holding  office  in  the  universities, 
but  the  effect  of  this  was  practically  unfelt.  To  the  subscription 
Episcopalians  had  little  if  any  objection,  and  Presbyterians  had 
none.  The  rebellion  of  171 5  was  not  yet  upon  them,  and  there- 
fore the  Oath  of  Allegiance  was  no  stumbling-block.  As  a 
matter  of  fact  there  seem  to  have  been  no  dismissals  from  the 
staff  of  Marischal  College.  But  in  another  important  respect  a 
great  and  permanent  change  was  effected.  Hitherto  the  Church 
— whether  Catholic  or  Protestant — had  been  the  predominant 
partner  in  the  universities.  Henceforth  the  universities  be- 
came institutions  of  the  state. 

The  way  was  now  open  for  carrying  out  the  three  re- 
forms suggested  by  the  Commissioners,  which  have  been 
already  referred  to  (p.  136),  viz.  the  election  of  Professors  and 
Regents  by  examination',  a  cnrsus  pliilosopJiicus  for  all  univer- 
sities, and  the  abolition  of  '  regenting.'  Further  reference  to 
them  here  is  unnecessary. 

Iney  "  put  in  ane  halt  ten  little  peices  of  paper,  upon  every  one  of  which  was 
writtine  a  distinct  subject  or  head  of  philosophic,  one  of  which  the  competitors  was 
appoynted  to  draw,  each  of  them  one,  and  to  have  a  discourse  and  sustain  theses 
thereupon." 


250  THIRD   PERIOD.      MARISCHAL   COLLEGE  [CH. 

In  another  direction  there  was  a  call  for  vigorous  action 
by  the  authorities.  Near  the  end  of  the  17th  century  the 
buildings  were  much  in  want  of  repairs.  Though  part  had 
been  rebuilt  by  local  subscription,  the  Senatus  felt  that  more 
was  needed,  and  an  appeal  to  the  Scots  Parliament  was  answered 
by  a  gift  of  the  vacant  stipends  of  certain  churches  whose 
patronage  belonged  to  Earl  Marischal.  In  1698  help  was  asked 
from  the  Convention  of  Royal  Burghs,  and  the  Commissioners 
gave  1200  pounds  Scots  (one  hundred  pounds  sterling).  In 
return  for  this  they  gave  the  Commissioners  what  would  now 
be  called  a  "cake  and  wine  banquets" 

A  Chair  of  Medicine  was  founded  by  Earl  Marischal  in 
1700,  and  in  17 12  part  of  Queen  Anne's  grant  of  £210  already 
referred  to  (p.  238)  was  assigned  to  it.  The  rebellion  of  171 5 
wrought  great  changes  in  the  college.  Through  the  Earl's 
espousing  the  cause  of  the  Stuarts  he  forfeited  his  title,  and 
the  headship  of  the  college  passed  from  his  family.  In  17 17 
almost  all  the  authorities  were  removed,  and  for  two  sessions 
the  college  was  closed.  When  it  was  re-opened,  the  Government 
claimed  the  patronage  of  the  chairs  which  had  belonged  to 
Earl  Marischal.  In  the  same  year  the  founding  of  a  Greek 
Chair,  which  had  been  unsuccessfully  attempted  more  than  half  a 
century  before,  was  realised,  and  Colin  Maclaurin  was  appointed 
Professor  of  Mathematics.  In  this,  and  indeed  generally, 
Marischal  College  was  progressive,  and  led  the  way  in  popu- 
larising the  work  of  the  university,  and  adapting  it  to  meet  the 
wants  of  other  than  the  wealthy  and  professional  class. 

The  demands  made  on  the  Principal  were  far  from  light. 
In  the  early  part  of  the  century  he  was  expected  "  to  be  well- 
informed  in  the  holy  Scriptures  in  order  to  qualify  him  for 
explaining  the  mysteries  of  religion ;  to  be  well  skilled  in 
languages,  especially  Hebrew  and  Syriac,  which  he  was  to 
teach  once  a  week ;  to  illustrate, from  Greek,  Aristotle's  Physiology; 
to  explain  the  sacred  writings  one  hour  every  Monday ;  to  give 
a   short    explication   of  Anatomy ;    to  teach  the  principles  of 

'  In  the  college  accounts  the  materials  are  thus  recorded:  "2  pounds  of  cours 
biscat,  6  ounce  of  fyne  hiscat,  5  of  rough  almonds,  5  pounds  of  raisans,  3  pints  of 
claret,  and  ane  choppin  of  ail,  a  pint  of  Canary,  7  pints  of  ail,  whit  loafs,  pips, 
tobacco,  and  candle." 


XX]  THE  CURRICULUM    IN    ARTS  25 1 

Geography,  Chronology,  and  Astronomy,  also  the  Hebrew 
Grammar  with  practical  application  of  the  rules'."  In  1726 
a  most  praiseworthy  attempt  to  establish  a  class  of  experimental 
philosophy,  covering  Mechanics,  Optics,  Chemistry,  Hydrostatics, 
and  Husbandry,  failed  from  want  of  means.  Its  aim  was 
eminently  practical.  The  class  was  to  be  conducted,  "so  that 
even  those  who  have  not  made  progress  in  Mathematics  may 
understand  some  of  the  most  useful  and  pleasant  parts  of 
natural  philosophy,  especially  all  sorts  of  machines  in  husbandry 
and  common  life."  Next  year  a  Chair  of  Oriental  Languages 
was  established.  Between  that  date  and  1741,  additions  were 
made  to  the  buildings  in  the  face  of  great  poverty.  Most 
praiseworthy  efforts  were  made  by  the  Senatus,  who  renounced 
part  of  their  own  interest  in  the  college  funds  for  the  purpose. 
The  Town  Council  gave  their  aid,  and  subscriptions  came  in 
from  private  persons  in  the  town  and  country  and  from  former 
students.     The  additions  cost  £700. 

In  1755  '  regenting,'  which  had  been  practised  for  more 
than  a  century,  was  abolished,  and  the  following  curriculum 
was  introduced. 

First  year.     Greek. 

Second  year.  Greek,  Latin,  History  Natural  and  Civil,  along 
with  the  elements  of  Geography  and  Chronology,  on  which 
Civil  History  depends,  Elementary  Mathematics. 

Third  year.  Mechanics,  Hydrostatics,  Pneumatics,  Optics, 
Astronomy,  Magnetism,  Electricity,  and  any  others  which  further 
discoveries  may  add  ;  Criticism  and  Belles  Lettres,  Mathematics. 

Fourth  year.  Pneumatology,  or  the  Natural  Philosophy  of 
spirits,  including  the  doctrine  of  the  nature,  faculties,  and  states  of 
the  human  mind;  Natural  Theology,  Moral  Philosoph)-,  contain- 
ing Ethics,  Jurisprudence,  and  Politics,  the  study  of  these  being 
accompanied  by  the  perusal  of  some  of  the  best  of  the  ancient 
moralists  ;   Logic,  Metaphysics. 

In  the  new  curriculum  it  is  to  be  noted  that  Logic  and 
Philosophy  are  taken  up  in  the  last,  and  not  in  the  first  year  of 
academic  study,  as  was  the  practice  in  the  middle  ages. 
Sensible  reasons  for  this  and  other  changes  in  the  plan  were  given. 

'  Kennedy's  Annals  of  Aberdeen ,  li,  92 — 4. 


252  THIRD    PERIOD.      MARISCHAL   COLLEGE  [CH. 

Attempts  at  the  union  of  the  two  colleges  were  made  but 
without  success.  In  1747  both  unanimously  agreed  to,  and 
subscribed,  articles  of  union.  The  number  of  professors  in  the 
United  College  was  to  be  that  existing  at  King's,  with  the  single 
addition  of  a  Professor  of  Mathematics.  The  disposal  of  the 
superfluous  professors  was  arranged  for  by  the  resignation  of 
some,  and  the  alternative  discharge  of  duty  by  others.  The 
only  unsettled  point  was  the  locality  of  the  new  Institution. 
One  party  claimed  New  Aberdeen,  the  other  Old  Aberdeen  as 
the  most  suitable.  Neither  would  give  way,  and  the  proposed 
union  fell  through.  Other  schemes  failed,  and  though  in  1786 
a  fresh  attempt,  on  what  seemed  a  feasible  plan,  was  proposed, 
King's  College  rejected  it^  In  1755  residence  in  the  college 
was  given  up  and  '  disputation '  as  an  element  in  graduation 
was  discontinued  after  1765.  An  observatory  in  connection 
with  the  college  was  erected  on  the  Castle  Hill  in  1781,  the 
Town  Council  contributing  twenty  guineas  for  the  purchase  of 
instruments.     In  1795  it  was  transferred  to  the  college. 

The  first  forty  years  of  the  19th  century  seem  to  have  been 
a  period  of  academic  activity.  Within  that  period  no  fewer 
than  five  new  lectureships  were  instituted — Anatomy,  Midwifery, 
Surgery,  Materia  Medica,  and  Scots  Law.  The  joint  medical 
school,  established  between  Marischal  and  King's  College  in  181 8, 
had  a  Professor  of  Medicine  and  four  lectureships,  and  in  1839 
when  the  joint  medical  school  was  dissolved,  Marischal  College 
had  teaching  provided  in  Materia  Medica,  Physiology,  Medical 
Jurisprudence,  Anatomy,  Midwifery,  and  Botany.  In  1825  the 
degree  of  M.D.  which,  as  in  Glasgow,  had  been  very  loosely 
conferred  on  the  recommendation  of  two  or  three  medical 
practitioners,  was  obtainable  only  after  examination. 

Similarly,  with  regard  to  graduation  in  Arts,  the  authorities 
thought  the  time  had  come  for  a  change.  Till  now  nothing 
more  was  required  for  graduation  than  attendance  at  the  classes. 
The  defence  of  a  thesis-  had  been  gradually  abandoned,  and 
there  was  substituted  for  it  an  examination  which  was  the  most 

1  Old  Statistical  A ccouut  of  Scotland,  Vol.  xxi,  1799,  pp.  113,  114. 

2  See  Appendix  for  graduation  theses  of  1730,  and  programme  of  lectures  delivered 
by  the  Professor  of  Civil  and  Natural  History  in  1810,  p.  255. 


XX]  GRADUATION    POSSIBLE    WITHOUT    KNOWLEDGE  253 

unqualified  sham.  The  same  questions  in  Logic  and  Rhetoric 
were  used  every  year,  the  candidates  being  supplied  with  copies 
of  both  questions  and  answers  which  they  committed  to  memory, 
and,  a  week  later,  repeated  in  presence  of  the  Faculty. 

In  these  circumstances  no  candidate  for  degree  was  rejected. 
It  was  even  rumoured  that  degrees  were  sometimes  given  to 
men  who  had  neither  attended  university  classes,  nor  passed 
even  a  formal  examination.  Nothing  seems  to  have  been  asked 
but  the  name  of  the  school,  academy,  or  university  the  applicant 
had  attended,  and  a  certificate  of  fitness  from  a  moral  and 
literary  point  of  view.  It  was  certainly  not  too  soon  that 
the  authorities  decided  that  the  time  for  a  change  had  come. 
A  change  accordingly  was  made  as  gradually  as  possible,  the 
questions  set  being  so  easy,  that  the  candidate  who  failed  to 
answer  them  placed  himself  clearly  below  graduation  mark.  Of 
the  thirty-three  who  came  forward  as  candidates,  five  "could 
not  answer  the  simplest  question,"  and  were  not  allowed  to 
graduate.  Feeling  aggrieved  at  this,  and  having  besides  some 
faults  to  find  with  the  Senatus,  they  appealed  to  Joseph  Hume, 
the  financial  reformer,  recently  elected  Rector,  who  thought  it 
necessary  to  hold  a  Rectorial  Court,  the  first  for  nearly  a 
century,  to  consider  the  complaint.  He  seems  to  have  thought 
the  students  had  been  rather  hardly  treated,  and  recommended 
the  Senatus  to  deal  leniently  with  them. 

The  parliamentary  commission  appointed  in  1826  recom- 
mended, among  other  suggestions,  a  union  of  the  two  uni- 
versities, and  a  change  in  the  method  of  teaching  Latin,  which 
had  latterly  been  taught  by  a  Regent  as  part  of  the  History 
course.  The  report  of  this  commission  was  not  incorporated  in 
an  Act  of  Parliament,  the  political  excitement  aroused  by  the 
approach  of  the  Reform  Bill  of  1832  throwing  university 
matters  into  the  shade.  The  evidence  given  before  the  commis- 
sion of  1 837  showed  that  the  suggestions  of  the  former  commission 
had  received  little  attention  but  one  of  its  recommendations,  a 
Chair  of  Church  History,  was  furnished  in  1833  by  William  IV. 
Latin  was  now  introduced  into  the  first  year  of  the  curriculum, 
and  candidates  for  degree  were  examined  in  Latin,  Greek, 
Civil   and  Natural    History,  Natural    Philosophy,  Moral  Philo- 


254  THIRD   PERIOD.      MARISCHAL   COLLEGE  [CH. 

sophy  and  Logic,  and  Mathematics.  This  curriculum  remained 
unchiivnged  till  the  Act  of  1858  was  passed. 

A.Iarischal  College  was  completely  rebuilt  between  1836  and 
'i"845  at  a  cost  of  ;^30,ooo,  Government,  the  city  of  Aberdeen, 
private  individuals,  the  Chancellor,  Rector  and  almost  every 
member  of  the  college  down  to  the  sacrist  being  contributors. 
A  Chair  of  Humanity  and  Chairs  of  Anatomy  and  Surgery  were 
founded  by  Queen  Victoria  in  1839.  Medical  and  other  Chairs 
were  instituted.  Mathematical  bursaries,  travelling  scholarships, 
and  gold  medals  were  furnished  by  benefactors  for  the  promotion 
of  scholarship  and  research. 

Between  1826  and  i860,  no  fewer  than  eight  attempts  were 
made  by  means  of  Bills  or  Commissions  to  unite  the  two 
colleges,  but  mutual  jealousy  barred  the  way.  The  conservatism 
of  King's,  and  the  progressive  instinct  of  Marischal,  forbade  a 
coalition  that  would  have  prevented  the  scandalous  waste  of 
energy  involved  in  two  sets  of  professors  lecturing  on  the  same 
subject,  each  to  a  mere  handful  of  students.  To  give  details 
of  the  various  schemes  proposed  would  be  tedious.  Slight 
concessions  on  both  sides  would  have  resulted  in  a  workable 
system.  Union  was  at  last  effected  in  i860,  during  the  Rector- 
ship and  by  the  skill  of  Inglis,  afterwards  Lord  President  of  the 
Court  of  Session,  and  Marischal  College  ceased  to  exist  as  a 
separate  university.  The  difficulty  connected  with  the  existence 
and  disposal  of  what  was  to  a  large  extent  a  double  set  of 
professors  was  skilfully  overcome.  The  bitterness  which  was 
felt  for  a  considerable  time  has  long  since  disappeared,  under 
the  mellowing  influence  of  a  common  interest. 


XX]  APPENDIX  255 


APPENDIX. 

The  earliest  extant  printed  Thesis,  the  maintenance  of  which 
by  the  candidate  was  a  condition  of  graduation,  is  dated  16 16. 
It  is  probable  that,  during  the  intervening  century,  similar 
Theses  were  printed  every  year  for  both  Marischal  and  King's 
Colleges.  Few  have  survived,  and  soon  after  1730  they  ceased 
to  be  printed.  The  subjoined  has  been  kindly  supplied  by 
Mr  P.  J.  Anderson,  Librarian  of  Aberdeen  University. 

(a)  GRADUATION    THESES 

OF  Marischal  College,  1730. 
DAVID    VERNER:    Praeses. 

1.  Omnis  idea  aut  oritur  a  sensibus  aut  a  reflectione. 

2.  Nulla  cadit  in  ideis  falsitas,  proprie  sic  dicta. 

3.  Potentia  DEI,  secundum  nostrum  concipiendi  modum, 
est  prima  possibilitatis  radix. 

4.  Mens  humana  est  Spiritus  dependens,  immaterialis,  ac 
immortalis. 

5.  Mens  humana  semper  cogitat. 

6.  Intellectus  et  Voluntas,  non  inter  se  realiter  distin- 
guuntur. 

7.  Voluntas  semper  bonum  appetit,  malum  semper  aver- 
satur. 

8.  Bruta  non  sunt  mera  Automata. 

9.  Omnes  et  solae  actiones  liberae,  earumve  omissiones, 
sunt  legis  directione  obnoxiae. 

10.  Rerum  Dominium,  sola  occupatione  corporea,  animo  sibi 
habendi,  ab  origine  acquiri,  absque  caeterorum  hominuni  con- 
sensu, potuit. 

11.  Omnis  materia  sua  natur^  iners  est,  neque  ullum  corpus 
cogitationis  capax  est. 

12.  Datur  vacuum. 

13.  Omnis  motus  est  proportionalis  vi  motrici  impressae, 
et  sit  semper  versus  eandem  plagam,  qua  vis  ista  dirigitur. 


256  THIRD    PERIOD.      MARISCHAL   COLLEGE  [CH.  XX 

14.  Velocitates  gravium.  ex  eadem  altitudine  cadentium, 
quando  ad  eandem  rectam  Horizontalem  pervenerunt,  sunt 
aequales. 

15.  Radii  lucis  sunt  materiales,  varie  refringibiles  et  re- 
flexibiles. 

(b)  PROGRAMME   OF   LECTURES 

BY  THE  Professor  of  Civil  and  Natural 
History  in  1810. 

Introductory  Lecture — Four  Lectures  on  Poetry  and  Ancient 
and  Modern  Versification.  Ten  Lectures  on  Chronology  and 
Geography  and   Progress  of  Discovery. 

Introduction  to  General  History — On  Government — The 
British  Constitution,  &c. 

History  of  the  more  ancient  nations,  Egypt,  &c. 

History  of  Ancient  Greece. 

Literature — Eloquence — Fine  Arts — Philosophy  and  Re- 
ligion of  the  Greeks. 

Rome  from  its  origin  to  Belisarius — Literature  and  Anti- 
quities. 

Natural  History. 

Introductory  Lecture. 

Lecture  on  Chemistry,  introductory  to  Mineralogy. 

Mineralogy,  Geology,  and  Meteorology,  &c. 

Botany  and  Vegetable  Physiology. 

Zoology — Anatomy — Animal  Physiology — History  of  Man 
and  of  the  Animal  Kingdom. 

Concluding  Lecture. 


CHAPTER    XXI 

THIRD  PERIOD  (1696  to  1858).     UNIVERSITY  OF  EDINBURGH 

In  our  second  period  the  history  of  Edinburgh  University  in 
its  leading  features  was  described  up  to  the  time  when 
Carstares  appears  on  the  scene  in  1693.  Though  ten  years  were 
to  elapse  before  he  had  official  connection  with  the  university, 
his  influence  with  King  William  III,  whose  chaplain  he  was,  was 
so  predominant  that  he  was  popularly  called 'Cardinal  Carstares. 
He  took  the  keenest  and  most  beneficent  interest  in  university 
matters,  and  obtained  from  the  King  a  grant  of  i?i200  which 
was  divided  equally  among  the  four  universities.  His  aim  at 
filling  the  Scottish  theological  chairs  with  eminent  foreigners 
under  whom  he  had  studied  was  not  successful.  His  failure  in 
this  was  not  followed  by  relaxation  of  interest  in  the  university. 
With  the  grant  above-mentioned  each  of  the  universities  was 
to  be  provided  with  an  additional  Professor  of  Divinity  and 
theological  bursaries.  The  arrangement  for  Edinburgh  was  that 
the  Professor  should  receive  i^ioo  a  year,  and  that  bursaries  of 
^10  each  should  be  provided  for  twenty  students  in  Theolog)'. 
A  Regius  Professor  of  ^Ecclesiastical  History  was  accordingly 
appointed  in  1702,  the  Town  Council,  in  order  not  to  prejudice  the 
character  of  the  Institution  as  being  one  of  municipal  origin, 
making  a  merely  formal  protest  against  the  title  'Regius.'  It  was 
found  in  1707  that  the  twenty  bursaries  had  furnished  a  sufficient 
supply  of  ministers,  and  Queen  Anne  (by  whose  advice  does 
not  appear)  thought  it  better  that  the  twenty  bursaries  should  be 
reduced  to  five,  and  a  Professor  of  "Public  Law  and  the  Law  of 
Nature  and  Nations"  should  be  founded  with  the  £iS'^  thus 
saved.     This    was   done,  and    the    staft'  now   consisted    of   four 

K.  E  17 


358  THIRD    PERIOD.      UNIVERSITY   OF    EDINBURGH  [CH. 

ecclesiastical  Professors,  one  of  them  being  Principal,  Professors 
of  Public  Law  and  Mathematics,  four  Regents  of  Philosophy  and 
a  Regent  of  Humanity — in  all  eleven. 

Before  this,  students  in  search  of  instruction  in  legal  science 
resorted  to  Leyden,  Utrecht,  and  other  foreign  universities, 
returning,  after  a  year  or  two,  to  give  their  fellow-countrymen  the 
benefit  of  what  they  had  learned  abroad.  But  they  were  private 
teachers,  and  taught  their  pupils  sometimes  in  their  own  houses, 
sometimes  in  taverns  or  attics  in  the  High  Street  or  Canongate, 
their  studies  often  moistened  by  more  or  less  liberal  potations. 
In  1698  an  Act  of  the  Scots  Parliament  appointed  Alexander 
Cunningham  to  a  bogus  Professorship  of  Civil  Law.  But  he  did 
not,  and  was  not  asked  to,  teach  Civil  Law^ 

Chalmers  informs  us  that  John  Spottiswoode  "  had  the 
honour  of  being  the  first  who  opened  Schools,  in  his  own  house 
indeed,  for  teaching  professedly  the  Roman  and  the  Scottish 
Laws,  which  he  continued  to  teach  at  Edinburgh,  though  not  in 
the  university,  for  six  and  twenty  years-,"  He  was  followed  by 
James  Craig,  who  lectured  privately  on  Civil  Law  for  several 
years,  and  was  elected  in  17 10  Professor  of  that  subject,  but 
without  salary  for  the  first  seven  years.  For  an  account  of  the 
strained  relations  between  the  Town  Council  and  Professors  and 
Regents,  as  to  their  legal  rights  in  respect  of  the  Chancellorship, 
the  claims  of  the  college  to  be  a  university,  the  right  of  certain 
Professors  to  style  themselves  "the  Faculty  of  Philosophy,"  the 
legality  of  private  graduations*,  &c.  we  must  refer  the  reader  to 
Grant's  Story  of  Edinburgh  University,  I,  pp.  234 — 247.  It  is  not 
far  wrong  to  say  that  the  Professors  were  aggressive,  and  in  some 
respects  mutinous,  and  that  the  Town  Council,  as  patrons,  were 
perhaps  unduly  sensitive  as  to  encroachments  on  their  rights. 
Mutual  concessions  would  have  been   profitable  for  both.     At 

1  Grant's  Story  of  Edin.  Univ.,  i,  p.  361.  In  an  Appendix  too  long  for  quotation 
it  is  shown  how  illusive  was  the  Professorship,  promoted  mainly  by  the  Duke  of 
Queensberry,  to  whose  family  Cunningham  had  been  tutor. 

"  Chalmers'  Life  of  Ruddiman  (179.S),  P-  35- 

'■''  The  practice  with  regard  to  graduation  seems  to  have  been  loose.  In  1695 
an  honorary  degree  in  Civil  Law,  a  subject  not  taught  in  the  college,  was  conferred 
on  a  man  of  whom  the  only  record  is  that  he  gratefully  jiaid  ^^15  to  the  Lil>rary.  By 
the  Act  of  162 1  Edinburgh  was  simply  a  College  of  Arts  and  Theology. 


XXlJ  THE   CURRICULUM    IN    LAW   AND   ARTS  259 

the  beginning  of  the  i8th  century  however  it  was  legally 
settled  that  the  Town  Council  had  absolute  powers  over  the 
coUecre,  and  certificates  of  graduation  bore  that  the  Town 
Council  were  patrons. 

While  a  country  is  engaged  in  struggles  for  civil  and 
religious  liberty,  educational  progress  can  scarcely  fail  to  be 
unfavourably  affected.  That  the  frequent  changes  in  the  .staff  of 
the  university,  consequent  on  the  Restoration  and  Revolution, 
exercised  a  retarding  influence  is  beyond  question,  but  they  did 
not  produce  any  organic  alterations.  The  number  of  students 
seems  not  to  have  been  reduced.  The  majority  were  Covenan- 
ters who,  after  the  manner  of  students  in  religious  partisanship, 
took  to  occasional  rioting,  and  zealously  burnt  the  effigy  of  the 
Pope  without  serious  consequences.  But  early  in  the  i8th 
century  organic  changes  were  made.  Greek,  which  the  Visita- 
tion Commission  of  1699  in  vain  recommended  to  be  under  the 
charge  of  a  specialised  Professor,  was,  by  the  act  of  the  Town 
Council  in  1708,  assigned  to  such  a  Professor.  Passing  through 
the  Greek  class,  however,  was  not  necessary  for  a  student  who 
wished  to  take  the  Philosophy  course  at  once.  This  act 
provided  that  the  Faculty  of  Arts  should  consist  of  specialised 
Professors. 

The  following  is  the  curriculum  laid  down  for  Arts. 

I,  "The  class  of  the  Professor  of  Humanity  (now  restricted 
to  Latin)  remained  at  the  bottom,  but  it  was  no  longer  infra- 
academical.  It  constituted  the  first  year  of  the  Arts  course, 
and,  from  17 10  onwards,  the  students  belonging  to  it  were 
matriculated,  which  the  pupils  of  the  Regent  of  Humanity  never 
had  been. 

n.  Next  came  the  class  of  the  Professor  of  Greek.  This 
was  called  the  Bajan  class  from  old  associations,  though  it  was 
now  properly  the  class  for  second  year  students.  But  persons 
coming  from  other  universities,  or  who,  on  examination,  showed 
the  requisite  proficiency,  might  pass  over  both  the  Humanity 
and  Greek  classes,  A  similar  practice  had  been  allowed  long 
previously  under  the  regenting  system.  Those  who  on  entrance 
were  placed  in  the  second,  third,  or  fourth  yeav  class,  were 
called  supen'enietites,  and  the)-  were  often  very  numerous. 

17 — 2 


1 


26o  THIRD    PERIOD.      UNIVERSITY   OE   EDINBURGH  [CH. 

TIT.  Then  came  the  class  of  the  Professor  of  Logic,  which, 
as  being  next  above  the  Bajans,  was  now  called  the  Semi  class. 
It  was  the  third  year's  course  for  an  ordinary  student,  and  the 
first  of  the  two  }'ears  to  be  devoted  to  Philosophy. 

IV.  Finall)-  there  was  the  Natural  Philosophy  or  Magistrand 
class,  which  conducted  the  student  to  his  degree'." 

Up  to  1708  graduation  was  by  most  regarded  as  the  natural 
crown  of  a  completed  curriculum.  Thereafter  the  custom 
changed.  For  this  there  were  several  reasons.  The  abolition 
of  regenting  took  away  any  motive  for  encouraging  it  from  all 
but  the  Professor  of  Natural  Philosophy,  who  alone  got  laureation 
fees.  Further,  by  the  abolition  of  the  entrance  examination 
instituted  by  Rollock  many  were  admitted  who  could  not  face 
the  ordeal  of  an  examination.  As  contributory  to  this,  it  must 
be  added  that  the  grammar  schools  were  weak,  and  were 
forbidden,  by  an  act  of  the  Privy  Council  in  1672,  to  teach 
Greek  as  trenching  on  the  province  of  the  university.  The  result 
of  this  was  that  the  Professors  of  Latin  and  Greek  did,  in  their 
lower  classes,  the  work  of  grammar  schools,  traces  of  which  still 
remained  till  well  past  the  middle  of  the  19th  century.  In  these 
circumstances  a  go-as-you-please  habit,  as  to  the  number  and 
order  of  classes,  arose  ;  and  graduation  steadily  declined,  till  in 
the  middle  of  the  i8th  century  only  one  or  two  took  the  degree 
of  Master  of  Arts.  And  yet  degrees  even  in  Oxford  were  not, 
from  Lord  Eldon's  account,  difficult  to  getl 

It  is  clear  that,  except  in  classical  learning,  Edinburgh 
profited  greatly  by  the  adoption  of  the  professoriate.  In  all  the 
other  branches  of  academic  culture  we  find,  in  every  subject, 
such  an  expansion  in  breadth  and  depth  as  might  be  expected 
from  Professors  devoting  themselves  each  to  a  special  subject. 
Colin  Maclaurin  gave  a  wider  and  more  intellectual  range  to  pure 
and  applied  Mathematics  and  Experimental  Philosophy.  Stewart 
or  rather  Maclaurin,  for  Stewart  was  old  and  incapacitated, 
substituted  for  Aristotle's  Physics,  and  the  Sphere  of  Sacrobosco, 

1  Sir  A.  Grant's  Story  of  Edinburgh  University,  i,  pp.  263—4. 

2  "  I  was  examined,"  he  says,  "in  Hel)re\v  and  History.  'What  is  the  Hebrew 
for  the  place  of  a  skull?'  I  replied  '  Golgotha.''  'Who  founded  University  College?  " 
I  replied  that  King  Alfred  founded  it.  'Very  well,  Sir,'  said  the  examiner,  'you  are 
competent  for  your  degree.'  " 


XXl]  PROFESSORS    REPLACE    REGENTS  26 1 

Gregory's  Optics  and  AstroJiomy,  and  Newton's  PriiicipiaK 
Similar  advances  were  made  in  Metaphysics,  Rhetoric,  and 
Moral  IMiilosophy. 

To  the  five  Professorships  in  the  Faculty  of  Arts  in  1708  an 
additional  Professorship  of  Rhetoric  and  Belles  Lettres  was 
added  in    1760. 

The  Senatus  were  anxious  to  bring  about  a  return  to 
graduation,  and,  when  some  students  of  Philosophy  in  1738 
proposed  to  print  and  defend  theses  as  a  means  of  obtaining  the 
degree  of  M.A.,  their  offer  was  accepted  and  they  got  the  degree. 
Encouraged  by  this,  the  Senatus  drew  up  fresh  rules,  enacting 
that  candidates  must  have  given  three  years  to  Philosophy,  and 
be  publicly  examined  in  Greek  and  all  parts  of  Philosophy. 
This  seems  to  have  failed,  probably  because  it  made  attendance 
on  Mathematics  and  Moral  Philosophy  compulsory.  They  made 
yet  another  attempt  by  proposing  that  the  Professor  of  Divinity 
should  refuse  entrance  to  his  classes  to  all  who  had  not  taken  a 
degree  in  Arts,  but  that  those  who  had  already  entered  should 
receive  the  degree  without  examination.  This  also  was  fruitless, 
the  Professor  acting  probably  on  Knox's  advice  to  the  General 
Assembly  at  Perth  in  1572-.  The  General  /Assembly  has  never 
insisted  on  graduation  as  imperative  for  divinity  students.  Its 
insistence  did  not  go  beyond  stipulating  that,  before  being 
licensed,  every  student  should  produce  evidence  of  his  being 
either  a  graduate,  or  of  having  given  full  attendance  at  the  Arts 
classes  prescribed  by  tiic  university  where  he  had  been 
educated. 

As  the  result  of  an  inter-university  discussion  in  1803,  it  was 
decided  that  admission  to  the  Divinity  Hall  must  be  preceded 
by  attendance  for  four  sessions  covering  Greek,  Logic,  Moral 
Philosophy,  and  Natural  Philosophy.  It  is  remarkable  that 
Mathematics,  so  necessary  for  the  study  of  Natural  Philosoph)' 
in  its  now  extended  area,  is  not  mentioned  as  imperative.     In 

'  It  is  worthy  of  remark  that  the  Principia  was  taught  in  the  Scottish  universities 
before  it  was  received  in  the  English  ones.  Lecky's  Hist,  of  England  in  the  liith 
century,  vol.  11,  chap,  v,  p.  45. 

-  Laing's  A'nox,  vi,  p.  619,  ''Above  all  things  preserve  the  Kirk  hxmi  the  bonckige 
of  the  Universities... never  .subject  the  pulpit  to  their  judgment,  neither  yet  exempt 
them  from  your  jurisdiction." 


262  THIRD    PERIOD.      UNIVERSITY   OF   EDINBURGH  [CII. 

1809  Edinburgh  supplemented  the  omission  by  including 
Mathematics.  Other  attempts  were  made  to  frame  new  rules 
for  graduation,  but  nothing  definite  was  accomplished,  till  the 
Royal  Commission  was  appointed  in  1826  and  the  executive 
Commission  in  1858^ 

We  have  seen  that,  up  to  the  beginning  of  the  i8th  century, 
Law  had  received  scant  attention  at  the  hands  of  the  university, 
and  that  budding  advocates  in  search  of  legal  lore  betook  them- 
selves to  Holland,  Dutch  and  Scots  law  being  both  based  on 
Roman  law.  Two  attempts  at  founding  a  Chair  of  Law  in  1557 
(above  p.  144)  and  in  1590  (above  p.  150)  were  unsuccessful. 
In  1707  (above  p.  257)  a  Professor  of  Public  Law  was  at  last 
appointed  with  a  fixed  salary.  For  the  Chair  of  Civil  Law  to 
which  Craig  was  appointed  in  17 10,  and  for  other  two  chairs,  for 
Scots  law  and  Universal  History,  the  Acts  of  1716  and  1722 
provided  salaries  of  ;^ioo  a  year.  Till  the  end  of  the  i8th 
century  the  Faculty  of  Laws  was  represented  by  three  Professors 
of  Law,  and  the  Professor  of  History,  whose  subject  was  partly 
legal,  partly  historical.  Early  in  the  19th  century  the  Chair  of 
Public  Law  was  a  sinecure,  and  was  vacant  for  over  thirty  years, 
but  was  again  revived  under  the  Act  of  1858. 

A  proposal  to  establish  other  two  chairs,  one  for  Conveyanc- 
ing, and  the  other  for  Medical  Jurisprudence,  was  unanimously 
opposed  by  the  Senatus  as  unnecessary,  and  injurious  to  the 
vested  rights  of  existing  Professors.  These  two  chairs  were 
however,  by  the  action  of  the  Town  Council  and  the  Crown 
officers,  established  early  in  the  19th  century. 

In  our  second  period  some  description  was  given  of  the 
movement  in  1505,  which,  after  a  good  deal  of  wrangling  as  to 
the  respective  functions  and  rights  of  Surgeons  and  Physicians, 
ended  in  the  institution  by  the  Town  Council  of  the  earliest 
surgical  corporation  chartered  in  the  United  Kingdom.  I"or 
a  long  time  there  was  great  jealousy  between  the  Surgeons 
who  were,  and  the  Physicians  and  Apothecaries  who  were  not 
incorporated.  The  Surgeons  were  indignant  at  the  attempts 
by  the  Physicians  to  curtail  their  privileges,  and  restrict  the 
area  of  their  operations  as  legitimate  practitioners.     They  had 

^  Grant's  Story  of  Edinburgh  University,  i,  \u  282. 


XXl]  NKW   CHAIRS    IN    LAW   AM)    MEDICINK  263 

resolved  not  to  regard  themselves  as  in  any  respect  subordinate  to 
the  Physicians,  it  was  not  till  1695,  when  a  patent  was  received 
from  King  William  and  Mary,  in  which  the  limits  of  Surgery 
and  Medicine  were  defined  in  a  way  satisfactory  to  both  parties, 
that  the  Physicians  issued  a  document  to  the  effect  that,  having 
ridden  the  marches  with  the  Surgeons,  they  had  no  objection  to 
the  reunion  of  Surgery  and  Pharmacy.  Till  the  Act  of  1695,  the 
powers  of  the  Surgeons  did  not  go  beyond  the  bounds  of 
Edinburgh,  but  thereafter  they  got  power  "to  examine  all  who 
practised  Anatomy,  Surgery,  and  Pharmacy  within  the  three 
Lothians,  and  the  counties  of  Peebles,  Selkirk,  Roxburgh, 
Berwick  and   F'ife'." 

The  commencement  of  the  Medical  School  outside  the 
university  has  been  already  referred  to  above.  Some  of  the 
extra-mural  lecturers  became  university  Professors,  and  the 
wholesome  rivalry  between  the  extra-mural  lecturer  and  the 
university  Professor  had  a  large  share  in  the  establishment  of  a 
Medical  Faculty,  and  the  creation  of  the  now  famous  school  of 
medicine. 

The  College  of  Physicians  established  in  1681  was  followed  by 
the  College  of  Surgeons  who  got  a  new  Royal  Charter  in  1694, 
and  Anatomy  began  to  be  systematically  taught,  the  Town 
Council  agreeing  that  unclaimed  dead  bodies  should  be  handed 
over  to  the  lecturer  on  Anatomy. 

.  The  first  quarter  of  the  i8th  century  was  a  period  of  great 
activity  in  the  t^dinburgh  medical  world.  Chairs  of  Anatomy, 
Chemistry,  Medicine,  and  Midwifery  were  founded.  The  Town 
Council,  under  the  guidance  of  George  Drummond,  the  most 
illustrious  of  all  the  eminent  Lord  Provosts  of  Edinbur^fh, 
appreciating  the  whole-hearted  efforts  of  prominent  medical  men 
to  secure  that  Medicine,  in  all  its  branches,  should  be  taught  as 
fully  as  in  an)-  university  in  the  world,  established  the  Medical 
Faculty  in  1726,  To  Drummond  also  Edinburgh  owes  its  Royal 
Infirmary  in  1746,  and  the  establishment  of  clinical  teaching  so 
essential  for  the  completion  and  success  of  a  practical  school  of 
medicine. 

Chairs  of  Materia  Medica,  and  Natural  History,  were  founded 
'  John  Gairduer's  Si-f/c/i  of  the  College  of  Surgeons,  y.  i :. 


364  THIRD   PERIOD.      UNIVERSITY  OF   EDINBURGH  [ClI. 

in  1768  and  1770  respectively.  Others  were  opposed  by  the 
Senatus  on  the  principle  of  conserving  vested  rights.  The 
proposal  of  a  Chair  of  Surgery  was  for  a  time,  but  only  for  a  time, 
successfully  opposed  in  the  interest  of  Alexander  Monro 
Seaindiis,  the  Professor  of  Anatomy,  who  claimed  Surgery  as  his 
province,  as  it  had  been  his  father's.  The  Town  Council,  by 
honouring  this  claim,  and  granting  a  new  Commission  which 
recognised  him  expressly  as  Professor  of  both  Anatomy  and 
Surgery  to  the  end  of  his  life,  paid  a  graceful  and  well-deserved 
tribute  to  the  brilliant  success  of  the  Monro  family  as  great 
Anatomists.  The  same  opposition  was  shown  to  a  Chair  of 
Comparative  Anatomy  and  Veterinar>-  Surgery,  but  the  founding 
of  Chairs  of  Clinical  Surgery,  Military  Surgery,  and  Pathology 
were  grumblingly  agreed  to  between  1802  and  1831,  when  the 
staff  of  the  Medical  Faculty  was  completed  with  its  thirteen 
Professors,  reduced  in  1856  to  twelve  by  the  suppression  of 
Military  Surgery. 

Throughout  this  somewhat  contentious  period  the  Town 
Council  showed  admirable  breadth  of  view  and  public  spirit. 
The  success  of  the  university  and  the  estimation  in  which  it  was 
held  is  shown  by  the  steady,  and  as  time  went  on,  rapid  growth 
of  the  medical  graduation  lists.  From  the  establishment  of  the 
Medical  Faculty  in  1726,  the  list  lengthened  in  a  hundred  years 
from  six  to  one  hundred  and  sixty  medical  graduates  annually, 
"  whereof  fifty  were  Scottish,  forty-six  English,  thirty-six  Irish, 
and  the  rest  from  the  West  Indies,  Canada,  and  other  Colonies, 
with  a  few  from  foreign  countries  \"  In  1783  a  course  of  three 
years  of  medical  study  was  imperative  for  graduation  ;  in  1825 
it  was  raised  to  four  years.  The  conditions  of  graduation  were 
specifically  stated  but  somewhat  loosely  carried  out. 

From  1767  to  1834  the  following,  with  some  unimportant 
modifications,  is  a  summarised  account  of  the  ordeal  of  medical 
graduation.  The  candidate  faced  a  circumtabular  body  of 
Professors,  each  of  whom  asked  him  questions  in  Latin,  which  he 
answered  in  the  same  language.  By  answering  in  a  dead  lan- 
guage, probably  imperfectly  understood,  a  few  questions  without 
written    papers   or    practical    examination,    the    candidate    got 

'  ijiMi\.\  ^lu>y  0/  l:dinbitrgk  University,  i,  p.  inj. 


XXI]  NEW   CHAIRS    IN    VARIOUS   SCIENCES  265 

through,  at  a  single  sitting,  what  is  now  represented  b)'  the 
first  and  second  professional,  and  the  third  or  clinical  examina- 
tions. In  1833  English  took  the  place  of  Latin  in  both  oral  and 
written  work,  and,  instead  of  the  circumtabular  questioning,  there 
was  a  division  of  the  subjects  into  two  parts,  the  first  scientific, 
the  second  professional,  the  examination  in  both  parts  being 
both  written  and  oral.  Only  slight  changes  were  made  by  the 
Commission  of  1858'. 

In  addition  to  the  chairs  founded  between  the  middle  of  the 
1 8th  and  the  middle  of  the  19th  century,  there  were  others, 
which,  though  not  strictly  belonging  to  the  Faculty  of  Arts,  were 
placed  there,  as  at  that  time  the  Faculty  of  Science  did  not  exist. 
These  were  Astronomy  in  1785,  Agriculture  in  1790,  Music  in 
1839,  '^"d  Technology  in  1855.  The  Chair  of  Astronomy  was 
from  the  first  a  failure,  for  the  very  sufficient  reason  that  Govern- 
ment furnished  a  salary  but  no  instruments,  and  the  first  Pro- 
fessor never  had  a  class.  On  his  death  in  1828  the  chair  was 
vacant  for  four  years.  With  the  next  appointment  the  office  of 
Astronomer  Royal  for  Scotland  was  combined.  For  the  latter 
the  Professor  worked  industriously  with  the  observatory  and 
instruments  on  Calton  Hill  which  belonged  to  a  private  society, 
but  he  gave  no  lectures  in  the  university.  The  next  Professor, 
for  a  session  or  two,  gave  a  course  of  lectures,  but  the  attendance 
was  very  small,  and  the  labour  of  lecturing  by  day  and  observing 
at  night  being  too  great,  the  former  was  given  up.  And  so,  for 
about  one  hundred  years,  the  chair  did  almost  nothing  for 
education  in  the  university. 

In  1790  a  Chair  of  Agriculture,  the  first  gift  to  the  university 
by  a  private  benefactor,  was  founded  by  Sir  William  Pulteney. 
His  claim  to  the  patronage  of  the  chair  during  his  life  was 
objected  to  by  the  Town  Council  as  an  encroachment  on  their 
constitutional  rights.  Other  protests  connected  with  it  were 
made  by  the  Professor  of  Natural  History,  and  the  Professor 
of  Botany,  each  regarding  the  foundation  of  such  a  chair 
as  an  interference  with  his  vested  rights.  Notwithstanding 
these  protests  the  chair  was  inaugurated,  and  occupied  by 
Dr  Coventry  for  forty-one  years,  during  which  a  great  deal  of 

'   {jXdi\u\  ^tory  oj  E(liiiliiirg/i  University,  I,  p.  }^i^. 


266  THIRD    PERIOD.      UNIVERSITY   OF    EDINBURGH  [CH. 

very  good  work  was  done.  In  view  of  the  fact  that  the  chair  was 
not  available  for  graduation,  an  attendance  ranging  from  30  to 
80  was  rightly  regarded  as  satisfactory.  Coventry  was  succeeded 
by  Professor  Low  in  1831,  who  immediately  on  his  appointment 
took  steps  towards  establishing  in  Edinburgh  an  agricultural 
museum.  By  a  grant  of  i^300  a  year  from  the  Chancellor  of  the 
Exchequer,  and  contributions  from  a  variety  of  other  sources,  the 
museum  was  established  at  a  cost  of  ^3000.  An  interest  in 
atrriculture  was  thus  aroused,  and  the  number  of  students 
increased.  Professor  Low  was  the  author  of  some  standard  works 
on  agricultural  subjects,  and  kept  in  close  touch  with  continental 
agricultural  societies.  He  was  succeeded  by  Professor  John 
Wilson  in  1854  after  a  service  of  twenty-three  years. 

The  Chair  of  Music  was  also  a  private  foundation  by  General 
Reid  who  died  in  1807.  The  first  occupant  of  the  Chair  in  1839 
was  Professor  Thomson  who  died  after  a  short  tenure  of  ofifice. 
He  was  followed  by  two  eminent  English  composers — Bishop, 
for  three  years,  and  Pierson,  who  seems  to  have  never  presented 
himself  in  the  university.  So  far  the  Music  Chair  had  not  been 
a  success.  Professor  Donaldson  who  was  appointed  in  1845 
found  the  temporary  class-room  incommodious,  and  discontinued 
his  lectures  because  the  room  was  damp  and  injurious  to  his 
instruments.  The  foundation  stone  of  a  new  music  room  was 
laid  in  1858.  The  fund  left  by  General  Reid  made  provision  for 
an  annual  concert,  which  at  first  took  shape  as  a  musical  festival, 
by  which  choruses  were  trained,  and  musical  taste  cultivated. 
For  a  considerable  time  this  has  been  discontinued,  and  five  or 
six  historical  concerts  have  annually  taken  its  place.  Students 
who  aim  at  becoming  professional  musicians  get  valuable  training 
from  the  present  Professor  Niecks,  and  substantial  musical 
scholarships  have  been  founded. 

The  Chair  of  Technology  was  founded  at  a  suggestion  made 
by  the  Senatus  in  1852,  in  connection  with  the  charge  of  the  very 
valuable  Natural  History  collections,  which  had  outgrown  the 
capacity  of  the  existing  nmseum.  A  proposal  was  made  to  and 
accepted  by  Government  to  "  take  them  over  and  place  them  in 
a  national  museum,  which  should  still  be  an  addition  to  and  an 
integral  part  of  the  university."     They  were  removed  and  placed 


XXl]       CHAIRS   OF    A(;RICULTrRK,    MUSIC,   TECIINOLOGV         267 

temporarily  in  safety  till  the  "  Industrial  Museum,"  now  the 
Royal  Scottish  Museum,  was  built.  The  foundation  stone  was 
laid  by  Prince  Albert  in  i<S6o — among  the  last  public  acts  of  his 
life.  The  Queen's  Commission  stated  that  it  had  been  thought 
proper  to  appoint  a  Regius  Professor  of  "  Technology  in  the 
University  of  Edinburgh  "and  "  that  the  Director  of  the  Industrial 
Museum  in  Scotland  should  be  ex-officio  Professor  of  Technology 
therein'."  George  Wilson,  a  man  of  encyclopfcdic  knowledge,  was 
appointed  in  1855.  He  only  lived  to  complete  a  most  interesting 
syllabus  of  lectures  covering  three  years.  On  his  death  the  chair 
was  promptly  suppressed  ;  a  new  Director  of  the  museum  was 
appointed  ;  and  the  Senatus  found,  to  their  great  disappoint- 
ment, and  with  a  keen  sense  of  wrong,  that  they  had  been  out- 
manoeuvred to  the  extent  of  losing  a  professorship  and  the 
Directorship  of  the  Industrial  Museum. 

There  are  few  things  more  remarkable  in  university  history 
than  the  condition  of  the  Faculty  of  Divinity  in  the  middle  of  the 
1 8th  century.  Theology,  which  bulked  so  largely  in  the  mind 
of  the  Reformers,  and  the  promotion  of  which  was  the  leading 
motive  in  the  very  foundation  of  Edinburgh  University,  was  the 
one  subject  which,  amid  the  spirited  development  of  xArts,  Law, 
and  Medicine,  had  lost  its  vitality.  Since  the  founding  of  a  Chair 
of  Church  History  in  1702,  its  condition  was  one  of  stagnation 
for  nearly  one  hundred  and  fifty  years.  Of  the  four  Professors 
in  that  P'aculty  the  Principal  did  practically  nothing  but  super- 
vise generally,  attend  university  meetings,  and  confer  degrees. 
The  Hebrew  class  was  optional  and  few  attended  it.  The 
Professor  of  Church  History  lectured  once  a  week  for  four 
months,  and  here  too  attendance  was  optional  -.  The  Divinity 
lectures  were  the  only  pabulum  of  the  student,  and  of  them 
"  Jupiter  "  Carlyle  says,  "  the  Professor,  though  said  to  be  learned, 
was  dull  and  tedious,  insomuch  that,  at  the  end  of  seven  years, 
he  had  only  lectured  half  through  Pictet's  Coiipend  of  Theology,'' 
to  which  he  adds,  with  scant  reverence,  one  advantage,  "  he  could 
form  no  school,  and  the  students  were  left  entirely  to  themselves, 
and  naturally  formed  opinions  far  more  liberal  than  those  they 

'  Granl's  S/ory  0/ £(iinl>ur^^/t  University,  1,  p.  355. 
-  Sonicivillc's  My  o'vn  Life  and  Times,  p.  iS. 


268  THIRD    PERIOD.      UNIVERSITY   OE   EDINBURGH  [CH. 

got  from  the  Professor^"  Hebrew  was  little  known  in  Scotland, 
and,  regenting  being  still  the  fashion,  we  find  a  Professor 
of  Chemistry  exchanging  his  subject  for  the  teaching  of 
Oriental  languages,  and  a  Professor  of  Greek  undertaking  the 
teaching  of  Hebrew.  Theological  teaching  was  almost  every- 
where dull  and  dreary.  Here  and  there  some  Professors 
attempted  to  disturb  the  prevalent  monotony  by  liberal  and 
scholarly  expression  of  their  theological  views,  and  for  their 
reward  were  libelled  for  heresy.  This  type  of  Professor  was 
fortunately  not  permanent.  There  were  many  excellent  excep- 
tions among  their  successors  down  to  1858,  but  this  does  not 
acquit  the  General  Assembly  of  culpable  neglect  in  the  training 
of  candidates  for  the  ministry. 

Having  in  the  previous  pages  dealt  with  the  equipment  of  the 
university  with  additional  chairs  up  to  1858,  some  space  may  be 
profitably  devoted  to  the  relations  between  the  Town  Council 
and  the  Senatus. 

In  the  first  quarter  of  the  i8th  century  there  was  a  good 
deal  of  friction  between  the  two  bodies,  as  to  their  respective 
powers  in  the  appointment  of  representatives  to  the  General 
Assembly,  and  the  assumption  of  authority  by  the  General 
Assembly  over  the  university.  Such  questions  however  have  a 
political  or  municipal  rather  than  an  educational  aspect,  and  do 
not  call  for  detailed  treatment.  So  far  as  they  are  educational,  it 
may  be  said  that  the  Town  Council  confined  itself  to  the  appoint- 
ment of  Principals  and  Professors,  finance,  and  the  erection  of 
buildings,  and  left  to  the  Senatus  the  regulation  of  studies  and 
degrees.  From  1728  to  the  end  of  the  century  harmony  and 
co-operation  were  generally  the  characteristics.  In  1768  the 
university  buildings  were  shabby,  and  quite  out  of  keeping  with 
a  flourishing  and  now  famous  institution.  An  effort  was  made 
to  have  them  improved,  but  practically  nothing  was  done  till 
1789,  when  the  foundation  stone  was  laid  of  the  present 
building. 

Early  in  the  19th  century,  there  were  differences  of  opinion 
between  the  Town  Council  and  the  Senatus  on  some  comparatively 

'  Cailyle's  Autobiography,  p.  56. 


XXl]      THE   TEACHING    IN    THEOLOGY   AND    IM  (ILOSOPHV        269 

unimportant  points,  such  as  matriculation  and  graduation  fees,  the 
appointment  of  a  Secretary,  the  salary  of  the  Librarian,  &c.,but  the 
settlement  of  them  was  not  difficult,  nor  were  the  consequences 
serious.     In    1S20,  however,  the  appointment  of  a   Professor  of 
Moral  Philosophy  gave  rise  to  a  contest,  the  keenness  of  which 
was  increased  by  both  political  considerations  and  the  personal 
fitness   of  the    two    candidates    between    whom  ultimately  the 
struggle    law     These  were   Sir   William    Hamilton,  afterwards 
Professor  of  Logic,  and  John  Wilson,  the  "  Christopher  North  "  of 
Blackwood's  Magazine.     Both  were  highly  distinguished  Oxford 
students,  the   former  a   Whig,  the   latter   a   Tory.     Both  were 
Edinbureh  advocates,  but  neither  had  found  his  metier  \\-\  Law. 
Hamilton    chose    History    and    Metaphysics,    W^ilson    devoted 
himself  to  Poetry  and   Literature.     The  struggle  was  a  political 
one.     A  Tory  Government  gave  Wilson  its  most  active  support, 
as  did  also  Sir  Walter  Scott.     The  Whig  party  and  press  brought, 
against  his  moral  character  and  his  attitude  towards  religion, 
charges  which  were  completely  refuted  by  those  who  knew  him 
best,  and  he  was  elected  by  a  large  majority.     Though  his  lectures 
had  a  stronger  savour  of  Rhetoric   and  Belles- Lettres  than  of 
Philosophy,  the  general  estimate  of  his  work  has  always  been 
that  his  occupancy  of  the  chair  was  inspiring,  stimulative,  and 
entirely  healthy. 

Another  burning  subject  emerged  in  1824 — whether  Midwifery 
should  be  necessary  for  graduation.  The  Senatus  objected  and 
claimed  all  arrangements  for  graduation  as  "  their  ozvn  exclusive 
right."  For  this  there  was  some  excuse.  They  felt  that  the 
university  had  now  become  a  famous  institution  known  all  over 
the  world,  and  recogni.sed  in  Acts  of  Parliament  ;  but  the}-  forgot 
that  the  powers  they  used  were  granted  to  them  only  on  sufferance, 
and  were  not  based  on  legal  right,  and  that  the  Town  Council 
had  been  legally  declared  Masters  of  the  College  in  every 
respect.     On  this  point  the  original  charter  was  conclusive. 

To  settle  the  matter  definitely,  the  Senatus  proposed  arbitra- 
tion, to  which  the  Town  Council  objected  and  proceeded  to  take 
opinion  of  counsel.  Professedl)'  in  the  interest  of  the  students, 
they  proposed  to  hoUi  a  visitation  of  the  college.  The  Senatus 
thinking  this  would  be  injurious  to  discipline,  petitioned  Govern- 


270  THIRD   PERIOD.      UNIVERSITY   OF    EDINBURGH  [CH. 

ment  for  a  Ro}-al  Commission.  The  visitation  however  took 
place  in  1825,  and  the  Royal  Commission  was  appointed  in  1826. 
It  was  composed  of  many  very  eminent  men,  and  had  a  much 
wider  field  than  the  Edinburgh  disputes  for  the  exercise  of  its 
functions. 

Its  task  was  to  frame  rules  and  ordinances  for  all  the  four 
universities.  It  was  headed  by  Lord  Aberdeen  as  chairman. 
The  Senatus  asked  the  Town  Council  to  substitute,  for  their 
action  in  the  Law  Courts,  the  arbitration  of  the  Commission,  but 
this  was  found  to  be  incompetent.  At  the  end  of  three  years  of 
very  hard  work,  the  Commission  issued  a  scheme  of  studies,  which 
the  Senatus  wished  to  keep  in  their  own  hands  as  their  special 
province,  but  omitted  all  reference  to  the  constitution  and 
government  of  Edinburgh  University,  which  was  the  subject 
of  prime  interest  and  that  for  which  the  Senatus  thought  the 
Commission  had  been  appointed. 

On  being  informed  of  the  disappointment  caused  by  this 
omission,  they  formulated  what  seemed  to  them  a  suitable 
constitution.  It  is  sufficient  to  state,  that  it  was  to  a  great  extent 
identical  with  that  established  by  the  Act  of  1858,  and  was  on 
the  whole  satisfactory.  The  Commissioners  boldly  abolished  some 
chairs  in  which  there  had  never  been  any  teaching,  such  as  Public 
Law,  and  Practical  Astronomy  ;  others,  such  as  Civil  History  and 
Rhetoric  (the  latter  to  be  combined  with  Logic),  in  which  the 
attendance  was  very  small,  their  subjects  not  being  necessary  for 
degree ;  and  Agriculture,  in  which  there  was  only  occasional 
teaching.  They  recommended  the  institution  of  a  Chair  of 
Political  Economy,  and  the  separation  of  Surgery  from  Anatomy. 
Instead  of  abolishing  Civil  History  and  Rhetoric,  it  would  have 
been  well  to  stimulate  attention  to  both  studies  by  making 
them  necessary  for  graduation. 

We  cannot  do  more  than  advert  to  a  few  of  the  outstanding 
recommendations  of  this  Commission,  viz.  that  medical  examina- 
tions should  be  conducted  in  English  ;  that  the  teaching  of 
Greek  grammar  in  the  college  should  be  abolished  ;  that  entrants 
in  the  mathematical  class  must  profess  four  books  of  Euclid 
and  elementary  Algebra  ;  that  entrants  on  passing  a  certain 
examination  might  take  a  three  years'  curriculum  ;  that  there 


XXl]  PKOPOSAI.S   OF   THE   COMMISSION    OF    1 826  27  I 

should  be  two  Honours  grades  for  B.A.  ;  that  M.A.  should  be 
taken  in  the  following  year  subject  to  additional  examination  ; 
that  Professors  should  not  examine  their  own  pupils,  but  that 
additional  examiners  be  appointed  ;  and  that  a  Chair  of  Biblical 
Criticism  should  be  established'. 

As  was  to  be  expected  the  scheme  met  with  a  large  amount 
of  unfavourable  criticism  from  all  the  Faculties.  Some  of  it  was 
just,  some,  as  was  natural  from  the  conservative  leanings  of  the 
typical  university,  narrow  and  inconsistent.  Over-pressure,  it  was 
said,  would  either  kill  or  enfeeble  both  professor  and  student  ; 
attendance  and  consequently  emoluments  would  dwindle,  and 
the  chartered  rights  of  universities  would  be  infringed.  While  it 
is  not  difficult  to  get  to  the  point  of  view  from  which,  seventy 
years  ago,  these  fears  were  entertained,  it  must  be  admitted  that 
the  scheme  showed  an  admirable  breadth  of  vision,  the  accuracy 
of  which  subsequent  experience  has  attested.  The  most  of  its 
recommendations  have  been  realised  and  found  salutar)-.  It  was 
not  perfect;  some  proposals  were  excellent*  but  they  were  also 
expensive,  and  there  were  not  sufficient  funds  for  carrying  them 
out ;  some  were  too  drastic,  and  imposed  too  much  labour  on 
both  professor  and  student.  The  Senatus  were  wrong  in  objecting 
to  an  entrance  examination  on  any  terms,  but  it  is  arguable  that 
the  modern  entrance  examination  is  too  severe — certainly  more 
severe  than  in  Cambridge  or  Oxford.  Such  an  examination 
should  not  be  of  a  pitch  higher  than  the  average  secondary  school 
can  meet.  Time  to  rise  to  it  should  be  given,  as  proposed  in  the 
scheme,  and  the  rise  should  be  gradual. 

The  Report  of  the  Commissioners  was  issued  in  1830,  but  pro- 
duced no  fruit  for  six  years.  In  1837  Lord  Melbourne  brought 
in  a  Bill,  the  object  of  which  was  to  make  the  recommendations 
of  the  Commissioners  operative,  but  it  met  with  such  strong 
opposition  that  it  was  dropped,  and  nothing  more  was  done  till 
1858. 

In  the  Law  Courts  the  Senatus  lost  their  case.  It  was  decided 
that  the  Senatus  had  no  right  of  making  regulations  "  in  contra- 
diction to  the  Pursuers."     By  this  it  was  settled  that  the  college 

'  Vix:mi's  Sto)y  of  Edi>il>iirx')i  I'niversity,  11,  pji.  40 — 52. 


272  THIRD    PERIOD.      UNIVERSITY   OE    EDINBURGH  [CH. 

was  subordinate  to  the  corporation  of  the  city  and  Town 
Council. 

It  cannot  be  said  that  what  seemed  the  final  settlement  of 
the  respective  rights  of  the  Senatus  and  Town  Council  was  a 
pouring  of  oil  on  troubled  waters.  Occasions  of  quarrelling  were 
found  in  every  direction — the  appointment  of  a  "  General  Secre- 
tary of  the  University,"  increase  of  matriculation  fees,  reduction 
of  professor's  fees,  admission  of  the  public  to  the  Museum  of 
Natural  History  (which  the  Senatus  thought  should  be  used  as  a 
place  for  study),  interference  with  Sir  William  Hamilton's  classes, 
and  so  forth.  It  is  scarcely  an  exaggeration  to  say  that,  whenever 
a  point  arose  about  which  two  antagonistic  opinions  were 
possible,  the  Senatus  and  the  Council  were  ranged  on  opposite 
sides.  On  the  recognition  of  extra-mural  teaching  in  medicine  a 
keen  contention  arose,  resulting  in  the  opinion  of  counsel  being 
taken,  and  the  Law  Courts  becoming  again  the  arena  of  strife. 
Graduation  was  the  casus  belli,  though  it  was  a  res  Judicata  in 
1829.  On  this  occasion,  after  decision  was  given  against  the 
Senatus  in  both  divisions  of  the  Court  of  Session,  the  House  of 
Lords  confirmed  the  Scottish  decisions. 

The  expediency  of  an  entrance  examination  came  up  again 
for  consideration  in  1847,  but  a  definite  settlement  was  not  made 
till  1855.  Opinions  differed  as  to  whether  an  entrance  examina- 
tion, or  an  examination  for  promotion  to  the  senior  classes  in 
Greek  and  Latin,  was  preferable.  Sensible  arguments  were 
adduced  for  both  plans,  and  there  seems  no  good  reason  why  both 
should  not  have  been  adopted.  Professor  Blackie  maintained 
that  under  an  entrance  examination  which  he  had  held  for  three 
years,  the  attendance  had  increased.  The  increase  must  be 
credited  to  some  other  cause.  A  barrier  could  scarcely  lead  to 
increase.  The  Town  Council  in  1855  ordained  that  the  rudiments 
of  Greek  grammar,  and  translation  of  fifteen  chapters  of  St  Luke 
.should  be  the  entrance  examination,  and  that  anyone  failing 
to  pa.ss  it  in  November,  might  try  again  in  February.  For  this 
in  1858  there  was  substituted  a  voluntary  examination  for  those 
who  aimed  at  a  three  years'  course. 

The  ecclesiastical  Disruption  of  1843  split  up  the  Town 
Council   into  two  antagonistic   factions,   and  thereafter  doubts 


XXI]      CONTROVERSIES  BETWEEN  SENATUS  AND  COUNCIL      273 

were  felt  about  its  absolute  impartiality  in  the  election  of  Pro- 
fessors. A  difficulty  arose  about  the  appointment  of  a  Free 
Churchman  to  the  Professorship  of  Hebrew,  which,  being  an 
ecclesiastical  chair,  could  be  held  only  by  a  member  of  the 
Church  of  Scotland.  The  Senatus  successfully  opposed  the 
appointment.  Another  Free  Churchman,  Rev.  P.  C.  Macdougall, 
appointed  in  1850  to  the  Chair  of  Moral  Philosophy,  was  allowed 
to  teach  the  class.  As  several  lay  Professors  had  been  already 
admitted  without  taking  the  test,  the  Senatus  did  not  insist  on 
his  taking  it.  By  the  passing  of  the  Test  Act  in  1 86 1 ,  unquestion- 
ably a  corollary  of  the  Disruption,  all  difficulty  was  removed,  and 
all  university  appointments,  except  Principalships  and  theological 
chairs,  were  open  to  all  irrespective  of  Church  connection. 

We  do  not  here  enter  into  the  details  of  Parliamentary  action 
towards  the  university  farther  than  to  refer  to  the  act  which,  in  the 
face  of  judicious  and  generally  sympathetic  criticism,  was  by  the 
ability  of  the  then  Lord  Advocate  Inglis  passed  in  1858.  The 
ordinances  made  by  the  Commissioners  appointed  under  that 
act  regulated  with  a  few  changes  the  proceedings  of  the 
university  till  1889,  when  important  modifications  and  extensions 
which  belong  to  our  fourth  period  were  introduced. 


K.  E.  18 


CHAPTER    XXII 

FOURTH  PERIOD.     PRIMARY  AND  OTHER  SCHOOLS, 
AND  CODE  CHANGES  SINCE  1872 

It  is  to  be  regretted  that  no  satisfactory  attempt  was  made 
to  compensate  teachers  for  the  abolition  of  security  of  tenure  by 
the  Act  of  1872,  or  to  provide  for  them  suitable  retiring  allow- 
ances. All  teachers  appointed  thereafter  held  their  offices  at  the 
pleasure  of  the  school-board,  from  whom  also  they  might,  or 
might  not,  receive  a  provision  for  old  age.  Whilst  many  boards 
acted  generously,  it  cannot  be  denied  that  there  were  cases  of 
harsh  treatment  and  of  unjust  dismissal,  that  teachers  beyond 
three-score  years  and  ten  dragged  on  a  weary  existence  in 
office,  whilst  others  in  broken  health  retired  to  live  on  the 
bounty  of  friends.  In  1898  an  Elementary  School  Teachers 
(Superannuation)  Act  was  hastily  passed.  Its  provisions  are  too 
complicated  to  be  given  in  detail  here.  It  may  be  enough  to 
state  that  the  benefits  provided  by  it  were  of  three  kinds  ;  the 
Annuity,  the  Superannuation  Allowance,  and  the  Disablement 
Allowance.  Towards  a  deferred  annuity  fund  every  teacher 
who  came  under  the  provisions  of  this  act  contributed  ;^3  per 
annum  if  a  man,  and  £2  if  a  woman,  forty-five  years' 
contributions  purchasing  an  annuity  of  about  ;^39  in  the  former 
case,  and  of  ;^20  in  the  latter.  To  this  a  superannuation 
allowance  of  ten  shillings  for  each  year  of  recorded  service  was 
added  by  the  state.  Disablement  Allowances  were  granted  only 
to  those  in  proved  need  of  pecuniary  assistance  who  had  become 
permanently  incapacitated  owing  to  infirmity  of  body  or  mind. 

As  the  Annuities  that  could  be  purchased  by  the  teachers  in 
office  at  the  passing  of  the  act  varied  according  to  the  term  of 


CII.   XXII]  PENSIONS  FOR  TEACHERS  IN  PRIMARY  SCHOOLS    275 

years  they  had  to  contribute  before  reaching  the  age  of  com- 
pulsory retirement  (65),  provision  was  made  by  a  kind  of  sliding 
scale  for  an  increased  superannuation  allowance  being  granted 
to  them  by  the  state,  the  total  annuity  plus  superannuation 
allowance  being,  in  the  case  of  men,  from  ;^ 44  tO;^53,  and,  of 
women,  from  ;^  36  to  ;^ 38  a  year. 

The  provisions  of  the  act  were  obligatory  upon  every  teacher 
certificated  after  ist  April,  1899,  but  optional  to  those  in  service 
before  that  date.  School-boards  retained  the  right  of  granting 
pensions  to  those  who  did  not  accept  the  act ;  but  were  deprived 
of  it  in  the  case  of  those  who  did.  It  is  almost  sad  to  record 
that  eighty  per  cent,  of  the  men  teachers,  and  sixty  per  cent,  of 
the  women,  preferred  the  certainty  of  the  Department's  dole  to 
the  uncertain  liberality  of  future  boards. 

It  was  admitted  in  every  quarter  that  teachers  were  not 
receiving  adequate  compensation  for  being  forced  to  retire  at 
the  age  of  sixty-five,  and  ten  years  later,  with  the  approval  of 
all  sections  in  Parliament,  ample  provision  was  made  for  their 
superannuation  on  a  satisfactory  scale,  by  the  Education 
(Scotland)  Act  of  1908. 

The  code  of  1873  though  enormously  improved  was  not 
perfect.  With  a  view  to  a  more  generous  curriculum  a  wide  field 
of  specific  subjects  was  offered  for  individual  examination.  It 
cannot  be  said  that  a  profitable  use  was  made  of  this.  It 
certainly  caused  teachers  to  spend  on  smatterings  of  science  and 
snippets  of  languages,  easily  crammed  and  quickly  forgotten,  an 
amount  of  time  which  would  have  been  better  devoted  to  more 
solid  attainments  in  a  less  ambitious  field.  To  describe  in  detail 
the  many  changes  that  have  been  made  during  the  last  thirty 
years  would  be  tedious.  It  is  sufficient  to  make  a  simple 
reference  to  the  gradual  modification  of  individual  examination 
in  1886,  and  its  abolition  in  1890;  to  the  relaxation  in  standard 
and  class  subjects,  and  payments  graded  according  to  merit ;  to 
a  relief  of  fees,  partial  in  1889  and  complete  in  1894;  to  an 
unlimited  choice  of  specific  subjects  suitable  for  each  localit}- 
subject  only  to  approval  by  the  Department  ;  to  a  complete 
change  in  1893  of  the  whole  basis  on  which  grants  were  made; 
to  an  important  change  in  the  method  of  inspection  in  1898  ;  to 

18—2 


2/6  PRIMARY  AND   OTHER  SCHOOLS   SINCE    1 8/2  [CH. 

the  transference  of  the  Science  and  Art  Department  to  the  Scotch 
Education  Department  in  1899;  to  the  aboHtion  in  1901  of 
exemption  by  examination  ;  to  the  establishment  of  Higher 
Grade  Schools  for  pupils  who  remain  up  to  16,  and  whose  aim  is 
a  commercial  rather  than  a  professional  career  ;  to  the  establish- 
ment in  1903  of  supplementary  courses  for  pupils  between  12  and 
14  who  have  finished  a  primary,  and  do  not  wish  a  secondary 
course,  and  who  are  to  be  employed  in  consolidating  the  know- 
ledge already  acquired  so  as  to  make  it  available  for  practical  use 
in  whatever  is  to  be  the  occupation  of  their  lives ;  and  to  the 
institution  of  continuation  classes  at  first  in  evening  but  subse- 
quently also  in  day  schools,  partly  with  a  view  to  supply  defects 
in  the  elementary  education  of  backward  pupils,  but  with  the 
higher  aim  of  providing  for  those  who  had  left  school  the  means 
of  getting  a  more  mature  and  scientific  acquaintance  with  the 
principles  of  the  employment  they  had  chosen  for  their  lifework. 
For  the  most  of  these  changes  we  are  indebted  to  the  wise 
administration  of  Lord  Balfour  of  Burleigh  and  Sir  Henry 
Craik. 

It  would  be  rash  to  speak  of  any  code  as  perfect ;  but  few 
will  hesitate  to  say,  that  the  changes  introduced  and  the  additions 
made  during  the  last  thirty  years  are  in  the  right  direction, 
inasmuch  as  they  make  for  freedom  of  action  and  elasticity. 
Neither  teacher  nor  inspector  now  works  in  fetters.  Discretionary 
power,  which  cannot  be  eliminated  by  the  most  rigid  rule,  is 
freely  granted,  with  of  course  necessary  safeguards,  and  therefore 
with  a  better  chance  of  being  thoughtfully  exercised.  The  area 
of  the  educational  field  has  been  gradually,  largely,  and  judiciously 
widened.  Such  an  education  as  may  fit  every  working-man's 
child  to  face  the  necessities  of  life  is,  in  all  ordinary  circumstances, 
within  his  reach,  and  yet  it  is  scarcely  doubtful  that,  in  certain 
circumstances,  the  poor  man's  son  has  not  so  good  a  chance  of 
getting  a  university  education  as  he  had  forty  years  ago.  On  the 
other  hand,  the  poor  man's  daughter  has  a  better  chance  of 
making  a  career  for  herself  Her  time,  except  in  the  case  of  the 
very  poor,  is  not  so  valuable  as  the  son's,  and  if  she  has  the 
ability,  she  goes  to  the  university  instead  of  to  domestic  or  other 
comparatively  menial  service.     Many  fathers  cannot  or  will  not 


XXIl]  ADVANTAGES  &  DISADVANTAGES  OF  THE  NEW  SYSTEM  277 

bear  the  expense  of  the  three  additional  years  which  are  now 
required  to  bring  a  son  to  the  door  of  the  university.  The  age 
of  schoolboys  entering  the  university  has  gone  up  from  i6  to 
nearly  19  years.  Hence  in  the  Scottish  universities  the  decrea.se 
of  men  students  and  the  rapid  increase  of  women  students. 

For  children  of  more  than  average  ability  there  is  opened 
up,  through  skilful  organisation  of  advanced  subjects,  a  path  by 
which  they  can  climb  to  the  higher  position  for  which  nature 
intended  them.  Whatever  room  there  may  be  for  difference  of 
opinion  as  to  details,  it  cannot  be  doubted  that  this  is  the  aim  of 
the  Education  Department,  and  that  the  above  is  an  approxi- 
mately correct  account  of  the  public  schools,  which  have  taken 
the  place  of  the  old  parish  schools.  In  outlying  and  sparsely  popu- 
lated districts  university  subjects  are  now  le.ss  taught.  For  this 
there  are  several  reasons  ;  secondary  schools  and  higher  grade 
schools  are  more  numerous;  travelling  facilities  to  educational 
centres  are  greater,  and  a  preliminary  examination  for  entrance 
into  the  university — higher  than  that  for  Oxford  or  Cambridge — 
makes  attendance  at  a  secondary  school  necessary,  or  at  least 
desirable ^  There  are  also  now  for  clever  boys  many  more  outlets, 
for  which  university  training  is  not  absolutely  required. 
Changed  social  conditions  have  necessitated  the  introduction  of 
fresh  subjects — higher  English,  Nature  Study,  Science,  Shorthand, 
Drawing,  French  and  German,  &c. — in  order  to  meet  the  wants  of 
pupils  who  have  no  university  aims,  and  to  whom,  as  prospective 
skilled  artisans,  architects,  clerks,  business  men,  and  chemists, 
Latin  and  Greek  are  less  necessary.  At  the  same  time  the 
lowered, estimate  of  the  value  of  university  education  for  business 
men,  architects,  and  chemists,  and  the  falling  off  in  the  number 
of  men  students  are  somewhat  disquieting  features  in  Scottish 
education.  In  the  last  and  previous  generations,  a  considerable 
number  of  large  farmers  and  merchants  in  Aberdeenshire  had 
either  graduated,  or  been  at  college  for  at  least  two  sessions.  If 
the  new  system  should  scare  away  such  men,  education  and  the 
men  themselves  will  suffer,  but  the  university  still  more. 
Hitherto,  when  the  university  has  wanted  money,  it  could  always 

'  The    first    examination    in    Oxford  and   Cambridge  is  not  a  real   preliminary 
examination,  because  many  colleges  can  and  do  take  men  who  have  not  passed  it. 


2/8  PRIMARY   AND   OTHER   SCHOOLS   SINCE    1 872  [CH. 

get  it,  for  members  of  all  classes  had  been  through  it,  and  in 
loyalty  to  their  alma  mater  contributed  handsomely.  It  is  the 
eencral  interest  thus  created  that  has  enabled  Aberdeen,  with  its 
small  local  clientele,  to  collect  for  its  re-endowment  a  sum  of 
^228,000,  nearly  twice  as  much  as  Cambridge  has  been  able  to  do 
in  approximately  the  same  time.  The  women  students  will  not, 
in  this  respect,  take  the  place  of  men  who  have  ceased  to  go,  and 
the  result  will  be  a  serious  national  loss. 

While  we  cannot  but  admire  the  patience  and  fidelity,  under 
discouraging  conditions,  shown  by  the  typical  old  parish  teacher, 
and  are  surprised  that  he  accomplished  so  much,  it  is  difficult  to 
resist  the  impression,  that  the  constant  and  unqualified  praise 
which  it  has  been  customary  to  bestow  on  him  has,  if  taken  as 
descriptive  of  the  whole  of  Scotland,  been  somewhat  overdrawn, 
and  is  to  a  considerable  extent  a  reflected  glory  from  the  Dick 
Bequest  schools,  of  which  a  separate  account  is  necessary. 
Though  their  history  belongs  to  both  third  and  fourth  periods,  it 
is  more  conveniently  dealt  with  under  the  latter.  It  is  beyond 
question  that,  till  well  towards  the  end  of  the  19th  century, 
graduate  parish  schoolmasters,  except  in  the  Dick  Bequest 
counties  were  comparatively  rare. 

Dick  Bequest  Schools. 

A  very  striking  proof  of  the  superior  school  preparation 
which  prevails  in  the  Dick  Bequest  counties  is  to  be  found  in 
the  published  results  of  the  competition  for  the  valuable  Ferguson 
Scholarships.  They  were  instituted  in  1861,  and  were  open  to 
graduates  in  Arts  of  all  the  four  universities.  For  the  48  years 
from  1861  to  1909  the  results  are  the  following. 


No.  of  Arts 

Scholarships 

students. 

awarded. 

St  Andrews  about 

140 

13 

Glasgow           „ 

700 

29 

Aberdeen         „ 

300 

44 

Edinburgh       „ 

640 

55 

A  comparison  of  the  approximate  number  of  Arts  students 

and  the  Scholarships  awarded  places  Aberdeen  clearly  in  front. 

While  in  certain  parishes  in  the  South  where  the  teacher  was 


XXIl]  SUCCESS  OK  THE   DICK   BEQUEST  COUNTIES  279 

both  a  sound  and  enthusiastic  scholar,  boys  were  sent  direct  from 
the  parish  school  to  the  university  in  sufficient  numbers  to  make 
Scotland  proud  of  doing  what  has  been  done  nowhere  else,  the 
number  of  such  parishes  is  comparatively  small,  except  in  the 
Dick  Bequest  counties — Aberdeen,  Banff,  and  Moray  ^  Why  these 
should  be  placed  in  a  different  category  from  the  others  requires 
a  short  explanation. 

In  university  matters  Aberdeen  was  conservative,  and 
regulated  its  action  on  the  lines  of  the  foreign  universities  on 
which  it  was  largely  modelled.  Latin  was  consequently  of  great 
importance  as  being  then  the  usual  medium  of  communication 
with  other  universities,  and  also  the  language  of  diplomacy. 
Another  reason  may  be  found  in  the  fact  that  Boece,  an  excellent 
scholar  though  not  a  trustworthy  historian,  was  its  first  Principal, 
and  in  the  existence  of  the  famous  "Aberdeen  Doctors 2,"  all  great 
Latin ists.  Further,  Aberdeen  has  had  for  a  long  time  a  large 
number  of  bursaries  open  to  competition  in  which  Latin  was  the 
most  important  subject,  and  excellence  in  it  the  certain  avenue 
to  position  and  honour.  In  Aberdeen  more  than  elsewhere  the 
competition  day  is  the  great  day  of  the  year.  Telegrams  fly  all 
over  the  Dick  Bequest  district  as  to  the  place  of  the  competitors 
in  the  bursary  list,  and  the  teachers  of  the  first  and  other  high 
bursars  wear  figuratively  a  feather  in  their  caps  with  a  natural 
and  very  healthy  pridel     The  northern  boy  who  contemplates 

^  Though  these  counties  are  conspicuous  in  this  respect,  others  elsewhere  are 
creditably  represented.  Cases  in  point  are  James  Beattie  the  poet  and  Thomas  Reid 
the  philosopiicr  from  parish  schools  in  Kincardineshire  in  the  latter  half  of  the 
iStli  century.  They  entered  Marischal  College,  the  former  aged  14,  the  latter  12. 
Both  became  Professors  of  Moral  Philosophy :  Beattie  in  Aberdeen,  Reid  in 
Glasgow. 

-  This  was  the  name  given  to  a  coterie  of  men,  poets,  scholars  and  theologians, 
who,  early  in  the  17th  century,  made  Aberdeen  famous  both  at  home  and  abroad, 
wherever  learning  was  held  in  honour.  The  most  prominent  were  Bishop  Patrick 
Forbes,  his  brother,  and  his  son,  David  Wedderburn,  Arthur  Johnston,  Principal 
William  Leslie,  Dr  Scroggie,  Dr  Sibbald,  and  Principal  Guild.  In  the  ecclesiastical 
turmoil  of  the  times  some  were  deposed,  others  banished.  Gordon  in  Scols  Affairs 
speaks  of  them  as  "eminent  divynes  of  Aberdeen  in  whom  fell  mor  learning  than 
wes  left  behynde  in  all  Scotlande  besydes  at  that  tyme." 

^  An  accurate  description  of  the  bursary  competition,  the  way  in  which  it  was 
conducted,  and  tlie  keen  interest  with  which  the  announcement  of  the  successful 
competitors  was  waited  for,  is  given  by  George  Macdonald  in  his  Robert  Fa/cotwr, 
Part  n,  chap,  v,  pp.  190 — 2. 


28o  PRIMARY   AND   OTHER   SCHOOLS   SINCE    1 8/2  [CH. 

going  to  college  has  the  gaining  of  a  bursary  before  his  eyes 
for  several  years.  He  knows  he  will  not  get  it  unless  he  wins  it, 
and  he  knows  that  a  good  one  will  go  far  to  clear  his  expenses 
He  is  trained,  pen  in  hand,  with  greater  persistency  than  in  the 
South,  to  put  down  the  results  of  his  study  in  black  and  white, 
and  from  this  school  training,  followed  up  by  plentiful  written 
examinations  at  college,  spring  the  accuracy,  and  the  power  of 
utilising  time  in  examination,  to  which  success  is  due.  It  is  no 
disparagement  of  the  Aberdeen  University  staff  to  say  that 
there  are  as  able  men  and  as  good  teachers  in  the  southern 
universities.  The  Aberdeen  staff  make  an  excellent  use  of  the 
material  they  have  to  deal  with,  but  the  material  is  good,  and  the 
preliminary  handling  in  school  has  been  workmanlike. 

When  the  writer's  district  as  Inspector  of  Schools  was 
Aberdeen  and  the  North  of  Scotland,  he  was  Classical  examiner 
for  degrees,  first  in  Edinburgh  and  afterwards  in  Glasgow. 
Struck  by  the  contrast  between  the  lively  interest  felt  in  the 
Aberdeen  bursary  competition  and  the  comparative  apathy  in 
Edinburgh  and  Glasgow,  he  made  careful  enquiry  about  the 
subsequent  university  record  of  the  students  who  gained  bursaries 
by  competition  and  presentation  respectively.  The  General 
Council  of  Glasgow  University  thought  fit  to  publish  in  pamphlet 
form  his  remarks  in  support  of  a  motion  on  the  subject  of 
bursaries,  and  he  subjoins  a  few  of  the  more  striking  facts. 

"  For  three  years  the  prizes  in  all  the  Art  classes  in  Aberdeen 
fell  to  competition  bursars,  as  follows : — 


Total  Number 

Gained  by 

of  Prizes. 

Competition  Bursars 

In   1867 

102 

83 

In   1868 

103 

92 

In   1870 

124 

117 

In  the  last  of  these  three  years  only  one  fell  to  a  presentation 
bursar. 

These  figures,  referring  as  they  do  to  all  the  Arts  classes,  are 
valuable  as  showing  that  competition  does  not  reward  merely 
those  who  have  been  well  grounded  in  classics  at  school,  and 
whose  claim  to  success  might  be  supposed  to  be  simply  a  fine 
instinct  for  avoiding  serious  errors  and  pitfalls  in  versions,  and 


XXII]  COMPETITION    AND   PRESENTATION    UURSARS  28 1 

a  correct  habit  developed  into  a  kind  of  second  nature,  as  to  the 
proper  use  of  qui,  quod,  and  q?(ia  with  the  indicative  or  sub- 
junctive. They  prove  more  than  this.  They  prove  that 
competition  brings  to  the  front  the  best  men — men  who,  as  a 
body,  carry  off  the  honours  in  every  class  in  the  curriculum,  and 
that  mainly,  if  not  entirely,  because  of  the  habits  of  perseverance 
and  self-reliance  springing  from  open  competition,  and  from  an 
assurance  which  the  schoolboy  who  looks  forward  to  college  carries 
constantly  about  with  him,  even  in  his  schoolboy  days,  that  he 
has  before  him  a  fair  field  and  no  favour. 

The  statistics  of  the  Greek  class  for  the  past  session  (i  870-1) 
were,  if  possible,  still  more  striking.  The  students  were  ranked 
in  the  following  five  classes  : — (i)  Prizemen  ;  (2)  Order  of  Merit ; 
(3)  Creditable  Appearance;  (4)  Respectable  Appearance;  (5) 
Simple  or  Bare  Pass. 

The  number  of  bursars  in  the  first  Greek  class  during  the  past 
year  was  6^.  Of  these  39  were  competition,  and  24  presentation 
bursars.  The  whole  of  the  prizes,  1 1  in  number,  were  gained  by 
the  former  ;  12  stood  in  the  order  of  merit ;  12  made  a  creditable 
appearance  ;  4  made  a  respectable  appearance ;  and  not  one 
stood  under  the  heading  of  '  passed  simply.' 

Looking  next  to  the  presentation  bursars,  we  find  that  1 1 
passed  simply;  only  6  made  a  respectable  appearance;  only  3 
made  a  creditable  appearance  ;  only  4  stood  in  the  order  of  merit ; 
and  not  one  stood  in  the  prize  list. 

These  figures,  taken  as  measures  of  the  two  classes  of  bursars, 
are  curiously  the  reverse  of  each  other.  The  competition  bursars 
have  all  the  prizes  and  no  scratch  pass.  The  presentation  bursars 
have  no  prizes  and  1 1  scratch  passes.  Arranging  the  figures  in 
columns  they  taper  off  in  reverse  directions  : — 


Pres.  Bursars. 

Comp 

.  Bursars 

Prizemen 

0 

II 

Order  of  Merit 

4 

12 

Creditable  Appearance 

3 

12 

Respectable  Appearance 

6 

4 

Passed  Simply 

II 

0 

24  39 


282  PRIMARY  AND   OTHER   SCHOOLS   SINCE    1 8/2  [CH. 

The  presentation  column  has  its  broad  end  (nearly  half  the 
whole  number)  in  the  less  than  respectable  quarter,  tapering  off  to 
nothing  at  the  prize  end.  The  competition  column  has  its  broad 
end  among  the  prizes,  and  fines  off  to  nothing  at  the  simple  pass." 
It  is  highly  probable  that  an  examination  of  the  records  of  the 
two  classes  of  bursars  in  the  other  three  universities  would  give 
a  similar  result. 

Whatever  the  explanation,  it  is  certain  that  Latinity  struck 
root  deeper  in  the  northern  university  than  in  the  others,  and  it 
is  not  surprising  that  the  teachers  of  the  schools  which  were 
feeders  of  the  university  regarded  the  teaching  of  Latin  as  their 
first  duty.  In  1833  Professor  Menzies,  the  first  visitor  of  the 
Dick  Bequest  schools,  found  elementary  Latin  taught  to  a  few 
pupils  in  two-thirds  of  the  wretched  school-houses  described  at 
p.  204.  Arithmetic,  grammar,  and  geography  were  classed  as 
higher  subjects,  and  separate  fees  were  charged  for  them  as  in 
other  parish  schools  all  over  Scotland.  Considerable  advance  was 
made  between  1833  and  1841,  but  of  the  54  Dick  Bequest  schools 
visited  in  the  latter  year  only  24  presented  Latin  pupils,  few  of 
whom  went  beyond  the  translation  of  Caesar.  Not  farther  back 
than  fifty  years  ago,  in  many  of  the  Dick  Bequest  schools,  those 
learning  Latin  were  required  to  ask  and  answer  questions  and 
converse  in  Latin,  as  soon  as  they  had  acquired  a  moderate 
vocabulary.  Another  circumstance  pointing  in  the  same  direction 
is  that  a  large  proportion  of  the  Aberdeen  students,  being  sons  of 
small  farmers,  or  other  persons  of  narrow  means,  entered  college 
with  a  view  to  becoming  teachers,  and  so  earning  a  living 
earlier  than  in  any  other  profession.  It  is  at  any  rate  beyond 
doubt  that  Aberdeen  became  largely  a  university  for  teachers, 
to  whom  a  degree  would  be  useful  as  a  means  of  preferment. 
Hence  probably  the  remarkable  fact  that  here,  from  very  early 
times,  graduation  was  practically  the  universal  crown  of  a  com- 
pleted course  of  study. 

Forty  years  ago  no  discredit  attached  to  a  student  at  the 
other  universities  who  did  not  proceed  to  graduation,  but  in 
Aberdeen,  though  prior  to  1826  the  degree  was  conferred  in  what 
would  now  be  considered  a  very  loose  way,  it  was,  and  still  is, 
almost  a  disgrace  not  to  graduate.     Within  the  last  forty  years 


XXIl]  HISTORY  OF  THE   DICK   BEQUEST  283 

graduation  has  become  much  more  common  in  the  other  uni- 
versities, and  in  them  all  is  conferred  on  the  result  of  an  examina- 
tion of  considerably  higher  pitch  than  is  requisite  for  the  ordinary 
pass  degree  in  Oxford  or  Cambridge.  This  is  still  the  case,  but 
not  to  the  same  extent  as  it  was.  The  '  soft  option '  or  wider 
choice  of  easy  subjects  now  allowed  is  steadily  reducing  the 
value  of  the  Scottish  degree. 

In  the  original  scheme  and  till  1890,  the  teacher  to  be  quali- 
fied for  participation  in  the  Bequest  required  to  be  not  only  a 
graduate,  but  to  pass  a  severe  examination,  on  the  character  of 
which,  and  his  subsequent  success  as  a  teacher  of  advanced 
branches,  his  share  in  it  largely  depended.  On  the  result  of  these 
two  tests  payments  ranged  from  about  ^25  to  ^50  a  year. 

The  graduates  were  usually  of  high  mark,  and  their  pupils 
often  went  direct  to  the  university.  It  was  not  uncommon,  and 
is  now,  owing  to  an  examination  of  higher  pitch,  more  common 
than  formerly,  for  lads  in  rural  schools  to  go  to  a  grammar  school 
for  a  few  months,  to  have  point  and  direction  given  to  their  work, 
as  a  preparation  for  the  bursary  competition,  but  the  solid  work 
had  been  done  at  the  parish  school. 

Of  James  Dick's  early  years  there  is  no  authentic  information. 
He  was  born  in  Forres  in  1743,  got  an  excellent  education,  and 
when  nineteen  years  of  age  went  to  Kingston  in  Jamaica,  where 
he  entered  a  mercantile  house,  in  which  his  ability  before  long 
gained  for  him  a  partnership.  After  twenty  years  he  returned  to 
Scotland  with  a  large  fortune.  He  died  in  1828  bequeathing 
over  ;^ioo,ooo  for  the  maintenance  and  benefit  of  the  country 
parish  schoolmasters  in  the  counties  of  Aberdeen,  Banff"  and 
Moray.     The  Bequest  came  into  operation  in  1833. 

He  gave  to  his  Trustees  full  power  to  distribute  the  income 
of  the  fund  in  such  manner  as  should  "  seem  most  likely  to 
encourage  active  schoolmasters,  and  generally  elevate  the  liter- 
ary character  of  the  parish  schoolmasters  and  schools."  The 
Bequest  was  not  to  be  employed  to  relieve,  in  any  way, 
the  heritors  or  others  of  their  legal  obligations.  It  was  not  to 
be  in  any  sense  eleemosynar}-,  but  stimulative  of  effort.  This 
instruction  in  his  will  has  received  the  strictest  attention  of  the 
Trustees,  both  before  and  after  the  passing  of  the  Act  of  1872. 


284  PRIMARY   AND   OTHER   SCHOOLS   SINCE    1 872  [CH. 

The  Trustees  had  a  delicate  task  in  attempting  to  carry  out  the 
aims  of  the  testator  in  schools  where  the  heritors,  the  Presbytery, 
the  parish  minister  and  teacher,  had  all  a  statutory  position  and 
keen  interest,  and  where  there  was,  on  the  part  of  those  legally 
charged  with  the  superintendence  of  the  schools,  a  probability  of 
friction  and  impatience  with  the  interference  of  an  alien  element. 
Changes  in  the  code,  which  followed  the  Act  of  1872,  were  met 
by  changes  in  the  administration  of  the  Trust,  in  dealing  with 
school-boards  and  the  Education  Department,  of  such  a  kind  as 
to  safeguard  the  stimulative  effect  intended.  To  enter  into 
these  changes  in  detail  would  be  tedious.  Suffice  it  to  say  that 
the  Bequest  came  unscathed  through  the  danger  to  higher 
education  from  the  much  larger  government  grants  earnable  by 
elementary  subjects,  and  that  the  judicious  action  of  the  Trustees 
under  the  eminently  skilful  guidance  of  Professor  Laurie,  the 
Visitor  and  Examiner,  has  given  a  singularly  healthy  impulse  to 
all  the  schools.  Fortunately,  the  utmost  harmony  and  coopera- 
tion characterised  the  action  of  all  concerned.  The  Presbytery 
reported  annually,  the  Visitor  for  some  time  triennially,  and  later 
biennially  on  each  school.  On  these  reports  and  the  character 
of  the  teacher's  scholarship  depended  the  amount  of  the  annual 
award. 

These  were  the  conditions  that  obtained  till  1890,  when 
important  changes  were  introduced  and  are  still  in  force.  These 
are  the  discontinuance  of  personal  examination  of  the  school  by 
the  Visitor,  and  of  the  examination  of  the  qualifications  of 
teachers  before  being  placed  on  the  list.  For  the  former,  a 
written  examination  on  the  higher  subjects,  and  for  the  latter, 
a  selection  by  the  Governors  have  been  substituted,  essential 
conditions  being  that  the  teacher  must  be  a  graduate;  must 
have  a  sufficient  staff;  a  house  and  a  salary  of  not  less  than 
£i2,S,  exclusive  of  the  grant,  which  must  be  paid  to  the  teacher 
in  addition  to  his  salary.  Rural  schools  at  a  great  distance 
from  educational  centres  have  been  the  objects  of  special  atten- 
tion. The  distribution  of  the  grants  depends  on  various 
considerations — the  locality  and  population  of  the  district,  the 
number  and  quality  of  the  papers  in  higher  subjects  sent  up  by 
pupils,  and  the  annual  reports  by  H.M.  Inspectors.    Each  school 


XXIl]  ADMINISTRATION    OF   THE   DICK   BEQUEST  285 

receives  a  fixed  grant  of  ;^I5,  and  a  capitation  grant  at  such  rate 
as  the  Governors  may  from  time  to  time  determine,  in  view  of 
the  number  of  pupils  and  efficient  instruction  in  the  higher 
subjects.  This  grant  may  not  exceed  ^^35.  The  amount  of  the 
fund  has  made  it  necessary  to  Hmit  the  number  of  schools  on 
the  Bequest  list  to  130. 

The  Governors  have  power  to  make  special  grants  to  school- 
boards  of  not  less  than  £60,  and  not  more  than  ^200  annually, 
at  selected  centres  for  the  development  of  the  higher  depart- 
ments of  their  schools  on  certain  conditions,  among  which  is  the 
extent  to  "  which  the  grant  is  met  by  local  rates,  subscriptions 
or  donations."  The  number  of  pupils  in  higher  subjects,  includ- 
ing mechanical  drawing  and  science,  and  adequacy  of  staff,  arc 
taken  into  consideration  in  fixing  the  amount. 

For  several  years  after  1872  there  was,  all  over  Scotland, 
a  distinct  falling  off  in  the  extent  to  which  advanced  subjects 
were  taught  in  parish  schools,  largely  due  to  mistaken  action  on 
the  part  of  school-boards,  many  of  whom  believed  that  their 
duties  ended  with  providing  elementary  education.  In  1878  the 
Endowed  Institutions  (Scotland)  Commission  was  appointed,  to 
submit  to  the  Scotch  Education  Department  the  conditions 
according  to  which  the  parliamentary  grant  might  be  most 
advantageously  distributed  for  the  promotion  of  higher  education 
in  public  and  state-aided  schools.  The  result  of  their  enquiries 
shows  very  clearly  the  superiority  of  the  schools  in  the  three 
north-eastern  counties. 

In  answer  to  a  circular  issued  by  the  Commissioners  to  all 
Scotland,  three-fourths  of  the  teachers  who  replied  gave  it  as 
their  experience,  that  the  higher  subjects  of  instruction  were 
disappearing  from  parochial  and  other  state-aided  schools.  The 
returns  which  were  sent  up  showed  the  following  remarkable 
result.  The  total  number  of  those  who  had  in  1878  passed  in 
the  three  stages  of  the  higher  subjects  in  parochial  or  public 
schools  was  given  as  follows. 

///  a//  Scotland. 

Mathematics   1595  Greek       196 

Latin  3230  French  1589 


286  PRIMARY   AND   OTHER   SCFIOOLS   SINCE    1 872  [CH. 

Of  these  totals  the  following  had  passed  in  the  three  north- 
eastern counties  within  which  the  Dick  Bequest  is  operative,  viz. 
Aberdeen,  Banff,  and  Moray. 

Mathematics  240  Greek    103 

Latin  793  French  224 

As  the  counties  in  question  contain  only  about  a  tenth  of 
the  population  of  Scotland,  the  total  number  of  passes  in 
Scotland  (if  the  proportion  who  passed  in  the  Dick  Bequest 
district  had  been  attained  elsewhere),  would  have  been : 

Mathematics  2400  instead  of  1595 
Latin  7930         „  3230 

Greek  1030         „  196 

French  2240         „  1589 

Again,  the  number  of  pupils  studying  the  higher  subjects 
beyond  the  third  stage  in  Scotland  was  1507.  Of  these,  408 
were  in  the  schools  of  the  Dick  Bequest  district.  An  equal 
proportion  in  the  rest  of  Scotland  would  have  shown  4000 
beyond  the  third  stage,  instead  of  1 507  as  returned.  The  total 
number  of  scholars  returned,  as  preparing  for  the  university, 
was  574,  of  whom  198  were  in  the  Dick  Bequest  district.  Had 
the  rest  of  Scotland  shown  the  same  proportion,  the  total 
number  would  have  been  1980  instead  of  574.  These  results 
seem  quite  conclusive  as  to  the  superiority  of  the  parish  schools 
in  the  north-east  of  Scotland,  and  bear  testimony  to  the  success 
with  which  the  Dick  Bequest  Trust  had  contended  with  the 
depressing  influences  of  the  code. 

But  this  was  not  all.  A  return  of  the  number  of  elementary 
schoolmasters  in  Scotland  who  were  graduates  was  also  called 
for.  The  total  number  given  in  the  Report^  was  205,  and  of 
these  134  were  in  the  Dick  Bequest  district.  "  Had  the  rest  of 
Scotland  been  able  to  show  a  similar  proportion,  the  total 
number  of  graduate  teachers  in  elementary  schools  in  Scotland 
would  have  been   1340  instead  of  205 -." 

We  find  that  within  the  ten  years  previous  to  1888  "209  boys 
went  direct  from  the  parish  schools  to  the  universities,  and  156 

^  Report  of  Endowed  Institutions  Commission,  p.  201,  1881. 
2  Professor  Laurie's  Dick  Bequest  Report,  1890,  pp.  37 — 8. 


XXIl]       EFFECTS  OF  THE  DICK  BEQUEST  ON  EDUCATION        287 

went  to  the  universities  after  a  brief  stay  of  from  three  to  nine 
months  at  a  secondary  school — in  all  365  ;  in  other  words,  an 
average  of  more  than  thirty-six  per  annum  from  122  schools 
scattered  over  the  three  counties,  including  however  seven  or  eight 
central  or  secondary  schools,  such  as  Keith,  Peterhead,  &c.^ "  To 
these  may  be  added  546  passes  or  50*5  per  annum  in  various 
examinations,  Pharmaceutical,  Law  Agents,  University,  Local, 
Training  College,  and  L.L.A.  St  Andrews.  The  Trustees,  with- 
out relaxing  their  efforts  for  the  encouragement  of  university 
subjects,  think  it  right,  in  view  of  changed  social  and  commercial 
conditions,  to  regard  all  advanced  instruction  beyond  the  com- 
pulsory standard  as  entitled  to  recognition  in  their  estimate  of 
school-work. 

Professor  Laurie  in  his  Report  for  1890  states  that  one-fourth 
of  the  teachers  have  more  than  ^  1 50  a  year  exclusive  of  the 
Bequest,  and  that  of  123  teachers  112  are  graduates  and  have 
passed  the  Dick  Bequest  examination.  There  is  no  such  record 
elsewhere.  Hence  the  growth  of  a  high  educational  standard. 
In  many  cases  school-boards  have  caught  the  prevailing  spirit, 
and  given  encouragement  by  the  appointment  of  pupil-teachers 
and  assistants  beyond  code  requirements. 

We  find  the  same  influence  operative  in  connection  with 
autumn  classes  in  agriculture  opened  by  the  Professor  of 
Agriculture  in  the  University  of  Edinburgh  for  teachers  during 
the  school  vacations.  A  large  number  attended  from  the  north- 
eastern counties.  And  on  the  formation  in  1888  of  an  "  Institute 
of  Scottish  Teachers  of  Agriculture,"  93  out  of  143  were  from  the 
same  counties.  It  may  therefore  be  claimed  that,  both  directly 
and  indirectly,  there  is  no  fund  every  shilling  of  which  has  more 
fully  earned  a  shilling's  worth  than  the  Dick  Bequest. 

Professor  Laurie  summarises  his  estimate  of  the  work  of  the 
Bequest  up  to  1889  as  follows. 

"  The  '  university '  subjects  have  ceased  to  be  taught  in  a  few 
of  the  smaller  rural  schools,  and  they  are  either  gone  or  going 
in  schools  within  easy  reach  of  important  educational  centres. 
But  in  all  other  parishes  the  results  are  better  than  ever,  especially 
in  Banffshire.  The  qualifications  for  success  at  the  university 
'  Professor  Laurie's  Report  for  1904,  p.  10. 


288  PRIMARY   AND   OTHER   SCHOOLS   SINCE    1872  [CH. 

competition,  however,  are  now  higher  than  they  used  to  be,  and 
poor  country  boys  who,  twenty-five  or  thirty  years  ago,  would 
have  succeeded  easily,  have  now  increasing  difficulty  in  doing  so; 
and,  consequently,  the  proportion  of  country  boys  entering  the 
university  direct  from  the  parochial  schools  will  be  found 
probably  (but  of  this  I  am  doubtful)  to  be  smaller  than  formerly. 
There  are  now,  however,  many  outlets  other  than  the  university 
for  clever,  well-educated  boys  of  which  ample  advantage  is 
taken.  The  teaching  of  modern  subjects  has  extended  in  a  very 
remarkable  way,  and  the  number  staying  beyond  the  sixth 
standard  has  also  increased.  The  general  conclusion  is  that  the 
state  of  the  higher  parochial  education  in  the  three  counties, 
taken  in  the  aggregate,  is  at  present  much  more  satisfactory 
than  ever  it  was  in  the  history  of  the  Bequest,  especially  if  we 
take  into  consideration  the  greatly  improved  education  of  girls, 
in  which  there  has  been  a  change  amounting  to  a  revolution ^" 

The  regulations  and  schedules  drawn  up  in  connection  with 
the  new  departure  in  1890  kept  three  objects  in  view:  "  («)  To 
avoid  relieving  the  parish  rates  ;  {b)  to  ensure  such  an  applica- 
tion of  the  fund  as  would  encourage  the  teaching  of  the  '  higher 
subjects'  in  purely  rural  parishes  as  heretofore  ;  (r)  to  encourage 
the  attendance  at  school  beyond  the  sixth  standard  of  the 
government  codeV  The  number  of  schools  on  the  Bequest  is 
130.  That  the  new  departure  has  not  been  accompanied  by 
less  satisfactory  results  we  learn  from  the  report  already 
referred  to.  It  bears  that  in  1903  the  average  attendance  at 
the  schools  on  the  Bequest  was  21,359,  of  whom  2609  were  in 
advanced  classes,  and,  though  a  number  of  the  younger  pupils 
had  not  reached  the  age  for  presentation  at  the  government 
leaving  certificate  examination,  1358  had  been  successful. 

Junior  935 
Higher  417 
Honours      6 

A  most  satisfactory  account  of  efficient  secondary  work^ 

^  Professor  Laurie's  Report  for  1S90,  p.  56. 
^  Professor  Laurie's  Report  for  1904,  ]>.  14. 
^  VroiQZSox 'LdMxit's  Report  for  1904,  p.  16. 


XXIl]  THE    DICK    AND   MILNF.   BEQUESTS  289 

\Vc  find  also  that  in  1903  the  number  of  pupils  learning 
secondary  subjects  was:  Latin  2139,  Greek  145,  French  2139, 
German  311,  Mathematics  1933.  In  Greek  only  is  the  number 
smaller  than  in  i(S89.     In  all  the  others  it  is  largely  increased. 

We  find  further  that  during  the  three  years  (1901-4)  in 
addition  to  600  passes  in  non-university  examinations,  91  have 
gone  direct  to  the  university,  of  whom  36  went  from  schools 
strictly  rural. 

The  fact  that  more  than  one-third  of  those  who  have  gone 
direct  to  the  university  went  from  strictly  rural  schools  shows 
how  necessary  it  is,  in  the  case  of  selected  pupils,  and  under 
conditions  sanctioned  by  the  inspector,  to  permit  the  substitution 
of  one  or  more  languages  for  the  subjects  in  the  supjilementary 
courses  for  rural  schools.  In  justice  to  the  pupils  of  schools 
inconveniently  distant  from  central  schools  it  is  desirable  that 
the  conditions  of  permission  should  be  fairly  elastic.  Neither 
teacher  nor  pupil  will  be  tempted  to  substitute  languages,  from 
any  idea  that  they  are  more  easily  taught  than  the  subjects 
outlined  in  the  supplementary  courses. 

There  is  yet  another  northern  Trust  worthy  of  recognition  in 
a  history  of  education.  Dr  Milne  of  Bombay  bequeathed  to  the 
parish  schoolmasters  of  his  native  county  Aberdeenshire  a  sum 
of  about  ^50,000.  The  Trust  was  established  in  1846,  and  had 
for  its  object  the  benefit  of  the  teachers  and  the  education  of 
poor  children.  The  Trustees  had  the  selection  of  the  teachers 
thought  to  be  most  deserving,  and  the  kirk  session  in  each  parish 
had  the  nomination  of  the  twenty-five  children  who  were  to 
receive  free  education  in  all  the  branches  taught  in  the  school  and 
for  as  many  years  as  they  pleased.  The  teacher  was  to  receive 
twenty  pounds  a  year  as  an  addition  to  his  salary.  This  bequest, 
though  differing  from  that  made  by  Mr  Dick  in  being  mainly  ali- 
mentary and  charitable,  was  indirectly  stimulative,  inasmuch  as 
the  increased  emoluments  made  the  Aberdeen  parish  schools 
prizes  in  the  profession,  and  were  objects  of  ambition  to  many 
distinguished  graduates.  The  number  of  schools  participating 
in  the  Bequest  varied,  but  it  was  often  as  high  as  eighty  and 
ninety.  High  Wranglers  and  eminent  classical  scholars  in 
Oxford  and  Cambridge,  and  officials  of  great  distinction  in  the 
K.  E.  19 


290  PRIMARY  AND  OTHER  SCHOOLS  SINCE  1872         [CH.XXII 

Indian  Civil  Service  have  been  the  outcome  of  education  obtained 
through  the  Dick  and  Mihie  Bequests. 

The  original  Trust  Deed  of  Dr  Milne  was  superseded  in  1888 
by   a  scheme  of   administration    prepared    by    Commissioners 
appointed  under  the  provisions  of  the  Educational  Endowments 
(Scotland)  Act  of  1882.     By  this  scheme  the  whole  rights,  funds, 
and    estates    belonging   to   the   endowment   were    vested    in    a 
governing  body  of  eleven  persons  who,  when  education  became 
free  in   1889,  confined  themselves  to  fulfilling  the  obligation  to 
pay  off  the  life- interests  of  teachers,  of  whom   only  ten   now 
(1906)  survive   to   claim    their   ^20   a  year.     From   the   accu- 
mulation   of    the   Trust    funds    arising    from    this    source   the 
Governors  have   now  a  total   income  of  nearly  ;^iooo  a  year, 
which    they   are    entitled    to    spend    on   the    establishment   of 
school  bursaries  of  from  ;^5  to  ^10  to  be  awarded  by  competition 
among  pupils  attending  state-aided  schools  in  the  Milne  area, 
viz.  Aberdeenshire  and  the  parish  of  Banchory-Devenick,  for  the 
encouragement  of  higher  education.     Of  this  permission  no  use 
has  yet  been  made.     The  Governors  however,  in  view  of  encroach- 
ments on  the  capital  from  unremunerative  outlays,  thought  it 
better,  on  both  financial  and  educational  grounds,  to  save  up  the 
balances  for  use  after  paying  off  life-interests.    They  also,  in  view 
of  the  provision  made  by  the  Education  Bill  of  1900  for  higher 
education,  and  the  necessity  of  encouraging  religious  instruction 
for  which  no  government  grants  can  be  received,  are  anxious  to 
devote  a  part  of  their  free   income  to  the  promotion   of  that 
"  religious  and  moral  instruction  "  which  Dr  Milne  had  "  much  at 
heart,"  and  which  he  placed  in  the  very  forefront  of  his  Trust 
Deed. 

The  Philip  Bequest,  confined  to  certain  towns  and  parishes  in 
Fife,  had  at  first  for  its  aim  not  so  much  advanced  instruction,  as 
charity  for  the  education  of  poor  children,  but  as  the  funds 
increased  beyond  expectation,  additional  schools  were  built  and 
teachers'  salaries  increased.  It  seems  unnecessary  to  refer  to 
other  parish  school  bequests,  as  few  of  them  have  any  important 
bearing  on  secondary  education  in  connection  with  the  Act  of 
1872. 


CHAPTER    XXIII 

FOURTH    PERIOD.     S.P.C.K.   SCHOOLS    FROM    1872   TO    1906 

When,  a  few  years  after  the  passing  of  the  Act  of  1872, 
the  action  of  the  school-boards  made  the  schools  hitherto  main- 
tained by  the  Society  for  the  propagation  of  Christian  Knowledge 
unnecessary,  the  Directors  with  the  funds  thus  released  established 
a  system  of  bursaries  open  to  competition,  and  tenable  at 
secondary  schools.  A  large  number  of  the  bursars  entered  the 
university,  many  of  whom  highly  distinguished  themselves.  Any 
unused  surplus  was  devoted  to  assisting  youths. at  the  university 
who  knew  Gaelic.  In  1877  this  surplus  amounted  to  ;^250. 
Long  before  this  the  Society  had  practically  ceased  to  have 
subscribers,  and  were  only  the  Trustees  of  the  accumulated  funds. 

This  scheme  was  found  to  work  on  the  whole  well,  and  it  was 
decided  to  withdraw  the  salaries  from  all  Society  schools,  unless 
special  reason  could  be  shown  for  their  continuance.  There  were 
however  in  sparsely  populated  districts,  for  which  school-boards 
could  hardly  provide,  many  children  who  could  be  taught  in  their 
own  homes,  and  for  these  itinerating  teachers  were  temporarily 
supplied.  In  1882,  when  the  Educational  Endowments  Commis- 
sion commenced  their  labours,  the  number  and  attainments  of  the 
competitors  for  school  and  university  bursaries  were  very 
satisfactory. 

During  the  sitting  of  the  Commission  for  six  years,  there  were 
no  noteworthy  changes  in  the  operations  of  the  Society.  In 
November  1889  the  number  of  its  candidates  for  bursaries  was 
179.  Its  stock  amounted  to  ;^  185,330,  four-fifths  of  which  passed 
into  the  hands  of  the  "Trust  for  Education  in  the  Highlands  and 
Islands  of  Scotland,"  one-fifth  being  left  at  the  disposal  of  the 
Society  for  strictl}'  religious  purposes. 

19 — 2 


292    FOURTH  PERIOD.    S.P.C.K.  SCHOOLS  FROM  1872  TO  I906    [CII. 

The  area  to  which  the  scheme  of  bursaries  estabh'shcd  by  the 
Governors  of  the  Trust  applies,  covers  six  districts,  viz.  ( i)  Orkney 
and  Shetland,  (2)  Caithness  and  Sutherland,  (3)  Ross  and  Cro- 
marty, (4)  Inverness,  (5)  Argyll,  (6)  Bute  and  specified  parishes. 
The  administrative  body  is  admirably  representative  of  educa- 
tional interests,  comprising  men  of  eminence  in  the  Church, 
University,  Law,  and  chairmen  of  school-boards. 

While  the  main  aim  of  the  scheme  is  the  promotion  of 
advanced  education,  the  original  intentions  of  the  Society  for  the 
propagation  of  Christian  Knowledge  have  not  been  overlooked. 
Satisfactory  provision  is  made  for  the  payment  of  the  Society's 
bursaries  awarded  before  the  date  of  this  scheme;  and  for  the 
encouragement  of  Gaelic  teaching,  5^-.  is  paid  for  every  child 
who  is  taught  to  read  Gaelic,  provided  the  school  is  in  other 
respects  efficiently  taught.  We  have  evidence  of  the  impulse 
given  to  higher  education  by  the  Trust  in  the  fact  that,  in  1904, 
six  pupils  went  straight  from  what  was  formerly  a  parish  school  in 
Inverness-shire  to  the  university,  and  that,  in  1905,  the  first  place 
in  the  bursary  competitions  of  Edinburgh  and  Aberdeen  Univer- 
sities was  taken  by  bursars  of  the  Trust.  Further  the  Governors  of 
the  Trust  have  selected  14  schools  in  the  Highlands  and  Islands  at 
which  free  education  will  be  given  to  all  holders  of  bursaries 
awarded  by  the  Trust,  and  to  all  candidates  for  bursaries  who 
decide  to  compete  and  who  gain  not  less  than  50  per  cent,  of  the 
possible  marks. 

In  view  of  the  decision  of  the  House  of  Lords  in  the  appeal 
of  the  General  Assembly  of  the  Free  Church  and  others  versus 
Lord  Overtoun  and  others,  changes  were  made  in  1905  in  the 
body  of  Governors.  A  number  of  the  old  Governors  were  re- 
elected, and  among  the  new  ones  the  Universities  of  St  Andrews, 
Aberdeen  and  Edinburgh  were  represented  and  Sir  William 
Turner  was  re-elected  chairman. 

Grants  of  £60  were  paid  to  each  of  the  14  centre  schools, 
except  to  two  from  which  they  were  temporarily  withheld  for 
further  consideration  ;  and  in  one  case  the  grant  was  discontinued. 
In  the  administration  of  the  grants  the  Governors  made  sure  that 
they  were  satisfactorily  earned,  and  made  careful  notes  of  the 
reports  of  examiners  and  inspectors. 


XXIIl]  RECENT  ADMINISTRATION    OF   THE   FUNDS  293 

In  1906  the  Governors  decided  to  offer  a  bursary  of  £10 
tenable  for  three  years  at  the  Duchess  of  Sutherland's  Technical 
School  at  Golspie.  In  1905,  78  boys  and  106  girls  entered  the 
competition  for  school  bursaries.  The  examination  papers 
covered,  besides  the  ordinary  English  subjects,  Latin,  Greek, 
French,  German,  Mathematics,  Gaelic,  Physics,  Chemistry  and 
Botany. 

The  statement  and  scheme  submitted  by  the  Governors  for 
the  future  management  of  the  Society  were  marked  by  wisdom, 
foresight,  and  breadth  of  view,  characteristics  recognised  by  their 
being  largely  adopted  in  the  completed  scheme  of  the  Commis- 
sion. Oliver  Wendell  Holmes  in  his  history  of  the  "  Wonderful 
One-hoss-shay  "  remarks 

"  Little  of  all  we  value  here 
Wakes  on  the  morn  of  its  hundredth  year 
Without  both  feeling  and  looking  queer." 

Christian  and  philanthropic  schemes  are  no  exception  to  this  rule. 
While  the  Act  of  1872  made  changes  not  only  desirable  but 
imperative,  there  are  ^qw  institutions  that  have  stood  the  tear 
and  wear  of  180  years  so  well,  or  can  point  to  a  record  so  clean, 
an  aim  so  unselfish,  and  an  accomplishment  so  beneficent,  as 
the  Society  for  the  propagation  of  Christian  Knowledge  in 
Scotland. 


CHAPTER   XXIV 

FOURTH    PERIOD   (1872  TO  1907).     TRAINING    COLLEGES 

The  history  of  the  training  colleges  up  to  the  time  when  the 
Scotch  and  English  departments  were  separated  has  been  dealt 
with  under  our  third  period  (pp.  207—213).  At  that  time  there 
were  only  five  colleges  ;  two  in  Glasgow  and  two  in  Edinburgh, 
under  the  management  respectively  of  the  education  committees 
of  the  Established  and  Free  Churches,  and  one  under  the 
management  of  a  committee  of  the  Episcopal  Church. 

In  1874  a  Church  of  Scotland  and  in  1875  a  Free  Church 
training  college  were  established  in  Aberdeen,  at  first  only  for 
women,  but  in  1887  for  both  sexes.  Both  are  conducted  with 
most  satisfactory  results.  In  1895  a  Roman  Catholic  college 
for  women  was  established  at  Dovvanhill,  Glasgow,  and  has 
proved  a  great  success. 

St  George's  College  in  Melville  street,  Edinburgh,  founded  in 
1886  in  connection  with  the  High  School  for  Girls,  is  the  only 
institution  in  Scotland  for  the  training  of  secondary  teachers. 
Candidates  for  admission  must  be  over  nineteen  years  of  age, 
and  produce  evidence  of  satisfactory  attainments  in  general 
education.  The  majority  have  the  degree  of  M.A.  or  L.L.A, 
They  receive  instruction  in  the  college  in  the  Theory,  History, 
and  Art  of  Education,  and  attend  the  university  class  of  educa- 
tion in  preparation  for  the  Teacher's  Diploma  of  Edinburgh 
University.  Examinations  in  general  attainments  and  practical 
skill  are  conducted  under  the  superintendence  of  the  teaching 
syndicate  of  the  University  of  Cambridge.  In  both  examinations 
the  candidates  are  eminently  successful. 


CU.  XXFV]     TRAINING  COLLEGES  AND  PUPIL  TEACHERS  295 

In  dealing  with  Training  colleges  it  is  not  out  of  place  to 
advert  to  the  striking  advance  in  the  attainments  of  pupil- 
teachers  from  whose  ranks  the  training  colleges  are  mainly 
recruited. 

Before  1873,  when  Scotland  got  a  code  of  her  own,  the  pupil- 
teacher   (almost   everywhere,  except    in    Aberdeen,   Banff  and 
Moray,  where  the  attainments  were  much  higher  than  elsewhere, 
in  some  cases  earning  success  in  the  bursary  competition  at  the 
universit)')  crowned  an  apprenticeship  of  five  )'ears  by  the  con- 
jugation o{ posse  and  vcUe  in  Latin,  the  four  first  rules  of  Algebra 
and    Euclid    I    in    Mathematics.     He   crowns    it    now   through 
qualification  to  enter  the  university  by  means  of  Leaving  certi- 
ficates  equivalent   to    the  preliminary  examination.     There   is 
corresponding  advance  in  the  equipment  of  the  teacher.     Before 
1873  the  panoply  of  the  Training  college  student  in  secondary 
subjects    was   exceedingly   slender.       It    now    includes    Cicero, 
Horace,  Xenophon  and  Euripides  in  classics,  and  the  binomial 
theorem,  Trigonometry,  Euclid  I — VI,  and  the  measurement  of 
cylinders,  spheres  and  cones  in  Mathematics.     There  is,  in  the 
teaching  of  science,  the  further  important  change  in  the  substi- 
tution of  experimental   laboratory  study  for  mere  book-work. 
This  latest  change  in  his  training  is  still  on   its  trial,   but  its 
success,  making  as  it  docs  for  initiative  and   elasticity,  is  not 
doubtful. 

This  great  increase  in  his  equipment  has  a  very  obvious 
connection  with  the  scheme  of  joint  university  and  normal  school 
training,  in  which  the  present  writer  took  an  early  and  active 
interest.  In  the  latter  half  of  last  century  teachers  of  purely 
normal  school  training  were  in  some  cases  being  appointed  to 
parish  schools  in  Aberdeen,  Banff  and  Moray,  in  which  for  more 
than  a  century,  with  very  few  exceptions,  every  teacher  was  a 
graduate,  and  from  which  boys  were  sent  direct  to  the  university. 
Fearing  that  the  fine  tradition  of  the  parish  schools  in  these 
counties  would  not  be  maintained  at  the  former  high  level,  he 
had  many  consultations  with  the  Principals  of  the  various 
training  colleges,  and  sketched  roughly  a  scheme  b)'  which 
university  teaching  might  be  combined  with  normal  school 
training,  and  embodied  it  in   his  report  to  the  Department  in 


296  FOURTH   PERIOD.      TRAINING  COLLEGES  [CH. 

1865.  He  reverted  to  it  in  subsequent  reports,  but  it  was  not 
till  Scotland  got  a  code  of  her  own,  that  the  scheme  was  adopted. 
It  has  worked  exceedingly  well.  The  number  of  King's  scholars 
in  training  in  1906  was  1395  of  whom  414  were  attending  classes 
in  the  university,  and  it  is  safe  to  say  that  over  5CXX)  students 
have  during  the  past  thirty  years  got  a  more  or  less  complete 
university  education. 

It  had  been  observed  that  for  some  time  past  the  supply  of 
candidates  for  pupil-teacherships  was  falling  off;  that  there  was 
a  want  of  uniformity  in  their  practical  training,  insufficient  care 
shown  in  the  choice  of  candidates,  and  a  tendency  to  over- 
pressure from  their  instruction  and  practice  in  teaching  being  to 
a  large  extent  simultaneous.  It  had  also  been  observed  that 
increase  in  the  number  of  students  in  the  eight  training  colleges 
was  necessary,  and  in  1900  the  number  admissible  was  increased 
and  is  now  (1906)  141 2. 

There  are  however  other  sources  for  the  supply  of  teachers. 
In  1895  a  new  class,  called  King's  students,  was  introduced. 
These  receive  almost  the  whole  of  their  instruction  in  the 
universities,  local  committees  being  responsible  for  furnishing 
the  means  of  their  professional  training.  Large  and  steadily 
increasing  numbers  have  in  this  way  become  trained  teachers. 
In  1905  there  were  333  such  students  in  training.  In  order  to 
their  being  admitted  to  university  classes,  it  was  enacted  that 
they  must  either  have  passed  the  university  preliminary  exami- 
nation or  hold  Leaving  certificates  of  value  equivalent  to  that 
examination.  The  same  qualification  is  required  of  King's 
scholars  in  the  training  colleges. 

Graduates  in  arts  or  science  of  any  British  university  are 
another  source  of  supply.  They  become  certificated  teachers  on 
their  satisfying  such  conditions  as  secure  a  specified  amount  of 
practical  experience  and  skill  in  teaching,  and  passing  satisfac- 
torily an  examination  on  subjects  necessary  for  teachers  but  not 
covered  by  the  degree  they  hold. 

Yet  another  source  of  supply  is  found  in  acting  teachers  who, 
though  they  have  not  entered  a  training  college,  have,  as  pupil- 
teachers  and  afterwards  as  assistants,  had  a  valuable  training 
and  enter  the  examination  for  certificate. 


XXIV]       IMPROVEMENTS  IN  THE  TRAINING  OF  TEACHERS       297 

With  a  view  to  improve  existing  facilities  for  the  training  of 
teachers,  and  bring  it  into  such  close  connection  with  universities 
as  the  attainments  of  students  admit  of,  regulations  in  draft 
form  were  issued  by  the  department  on  January  30,  1905,  and 
submitted  to  the  criticism  of  experts  and  others  interested  in 
education.  The  scope  of  this  important  and  skilfully  drawn 
minute  may  be  summarised  as  follows. 

There  shall  be  established  in  connection  with  the  four 
Scottish  universities  provincial  committees  for  the  training  of 
teachers  (including  teachers  for  secondary  schools).  These 
committees  will  carry  on  the  work  formerly  undertaken  by  all 
the  training  colleges  whose  managers  consent  to  their  being 
transferred  to  the  Department.  To  this  transference  all  but  two 
have  agreed,  the  Episcopal  in  Edinburgh  and  the  Roman 
Catholic  in  Gla.sgow.  These  committees  shall  consist  of  members 
of  the  Senatus  Academicus,  of  school-boards,  of  managers  of 
secondary  and  technical  schools,  of  persons  actively  engaged  in 
the  work  of  education,  of  representatives  of  the  various  churches 
which  have  hitherto  had  the  management  of  the  training  colleges, 
and  of  the  chief  inspectors  of  the  respective  divisions  as  assessors 
of  the  Department.  The  number  of  members  to  be  appointed 
from  each  of  the  bodies  mentioned  above  is  specified.  Each 
committee  thus  constituted  shall,  subject  to  the  approval  of  the 
Department,  provide,  in  the  universities  or  elsewhere,  suitable 
courses  of  instruction,  and  opportunities  of  practical  training, 
and  shall  appoint  an  executive  officer  as  director  of  studies. 
These  committees  have  been  in  operation  since  the  issue  of  the 
minute.  During  the  session  of  1906  they  undertook  the  work  of 
the  former  local  committees  for  the  training  of  teachers.  They 
subsequently  got  their  officers  appointed  for  full  operation  in  the 
following  session.  The  students  in  training  were  accordingly  to 
consist  in  the  main  of  the  following  classes: 

Those  undergoing  a  three  years'  curriculum  of  which  uni- 
versity classes  were  to  form  an  integral  part. 

Those  undergoing  a  two  years'  curriculum  without  attending 
university  classes. 

Graduates  and  acting  teachers  were  to  undergo  one  year  of 
training.  Provision  was  also  to  be  made  for  the  training  of 
secondary  teachers  and  teachers  of  special  subjects. 


298  FOURTH    PERIOD.      TRAINING   COLLEGES  [CH. 

It  was  unlikely  that  the  pupil-teacher  system  would  long 
survive  the  effect  of  these  regulations.  But  to  guard  against  the 
difficulties  which,  during  transition,  accompany  sudden  changes, 
temporar}'  and  elastic  provision  has  been  carefully  made  over  a 
series  of  years  for  pupil  teachers  and  others  who  have  to  complete 
their  training. 

Under  the  regulations  there  are  two  classes,  junior  students 
and  students  in  full  training  (senior  students).  Before  admission 
junior  students  must  have  received  a  good  general  education  on 
the  level  of  the  intermediate  certificate,  or  one  recognised  as 
of  equivalent  value,  and  must  have  given  evidence  of  fitness  for 
the  office  of  teacher'.  During  their  course  facilities  for  further 
advanced  study  are  afforded,  so  far  as  consistent  with  professional 
training  under  efficient  superintendence. 

Admission  as  senior  students  is  open  to  all  who  have 
obtained  the  junior  students'  certificate,  and  to  others  whether 
pupil-teachers,  King's  students,  King's  scholars,  untrained 
teachers,  or  graduates,  on  their  satisfying  what  seem  reasonable 
and  carefully  considered  conditions  applicable  to  their  various 
positions  in  respect  of  training  and  experience. 

Students  in  full  training  obtain  their  practice  in  teaching 
in  schools  approved  by  the  Department.  The  head-masters  and 
infant  mistresses  assist  in  supervising  and  guiding  the  students, 
and  the  masters  of  method  of  the  provincial  committees  visit  the 
schools  and  keep  in  close  touch  with  the  work.  Demonstra- 
tion and  model  lessons  are  given  by  the  teachers  and  masters 
of  method,  and  a  systematic  course  of  criticism  lessons  is  gone 
through. 

By  the  constitution  of  these  provincial  committees,  who 
have  established  courses  for  teachers  in  intermediate  and 
secondary  schools,  and  by  the  transference  to  the  Department 
of  the  Presbyterian  training  colleges,  an  important  step  has  been 
taken  towards  the  complete  nationalisation  of  our  educational 
school  system. 

The  pupil-teacher  system  has  already  to  a  large  extent  and  will 
probably  soon  altogether  come  to  an  end,  and  its  place  will  have 
been  taken  by  another  and  better  one,  but  many  if  not  all  the  older 

1  The  position  and  training  of  the  junior  and  senior  students  and  the  corresponding 
certificates  are  dealt  with  in  Appendix  II,  page  398. 


XXIV]      DISAPPEARANCE  OF  THE  PUPIL-TEACHER  SYSTEM      299 

inspectors  will  be  disposed  to  say  good-bye  to  it  in  a  kindly  and 
not  ungrateful  spirit.  It  was  not  perfect,  but  its  imperfections 
were  not  so  much  inherent  in  the  system  as  in  the  carelessness 
with  which  it  was  in  many  cases  worked.  The  two  main  sources 
of  weakness  were  careless  choice  of  candidates,  and  neglect  of 
practical  training  after  they  were  chosen.  Most  of  the  older 
inspectors  will  agree  with  the  writer  in  saying  that  they  could 
name  a  great  many  schools  in  which  they  had  scarcely  ever 
found  a  useless  pupil-teacher,  and  many  in  which  they  had 
scarcely  ever  found  a  useful  one.  When  judiciously  selected  and 
carefully  trained  the  pupil-teacher  was  a  cheap  and  valuable 
member  of  the  staff.  They  will  also  be  able  to  name  many 
pupil-teachers  who  have  crowned  their  work  by  becoming  head- 
masters of  not  only  elementary  and  higher  grade,  but  also  of 
secondary  schools. 


CHAPTER    XXV 

FOURTH  PERIOD.     SECONDARY  SCHOOLS  FROM  1872  TO  1908 

We  have  seen  that  while  praiseworthy  but  only  moderately 
successful  attempts  were  made  in  the  17th  and  i8th  centuries  to 
establish  schools  in  every  parish,  higher  class  and  burgh  schools 
were  allowed  to  struggle  on  with  such  aid — often  scanty  enough — 
as  the  Church,  the  Common  Good  of  burghs  and  private  benefac- 
tions could  supply.  It  was  not  till  1872  that  they  received  their  first 
help — a  step-motherly  one — from  Government,  in  being  allowed 
to  participate  in  parliamentary  grants  for  the  erection,  but  not 
for  the  repair,  of  school  buildings.  In  1878  the  favour  was  slightly 
extended  by  school-boards  being  "  empowered  to  pay  from  the 
school-fund  such  other  expenses  for  the  promotion  of  efficient 
education  as  are  not  provided  for  in  section  62  of  the  Act  of 
1872'."  This  proved  a  boon  less  generous  than  it  at  first  seemed  to 
be,  for,  according  to  the  opinion  of  coun.sel,  the  only  expenses 
covered  by  it  were  the  fee  paid  to  the  examiners,  and  the  payment 
of  retiring  allowances  to  the  teachers  of  higher  class  schools, 
whom  the  school-board  might  think  worthy  of  such  recognition. 
Unfortunately  the  school-board's  love  for  higher  education  was 
not  strong  enough  to  cast  out  their  fear  of  the  ratepayer,  and  as 
a  rule  few  requests  were  made  for  the  offered  help,  though  the  De- 
partment when  reporting  on  deficient  accommodation  constantly 
reminded  boards  of  their  undue  timidity  in  this  respect.  The 
effect  of  placing  burgh  and  grammar  schools  under  the  manage- 
ment of  school-boards  has  been  various,  depending  to  a  great 
extent  on  local  conditions.  In  a  city  .so  fully  supplied  as 
Edinburgh  with  institutions  of  the  type  of  the  Merchant  Company, 

'  Education  Act,  1878,  Section  18. 


CIT   XXV]        SCHOOL-BOARDS   AND   SECONDARY   SCHOOLS         3OI 

Hcriot,  and  Fettcs  Colleges,  a  hard  uphill  fight  was,  for  a  con- 
siderable time,  the  fate  of  proprietary  and  private  schools  like 
the  Edinburgh  Academy,  the  Edinburgh  Institution,  Merchiston, 
and  Loretto  in  furnishing  secondary  education.  Much  the  same, 
but  with  less  emphasis,  may  be  said  of  other  large  towns  like 
Glasgow,  Aberdeen,  and  Dundee.  In  recent  years  the  position 
of  many  has  been  improved.  Dundee  High  School,  which  is  not 
under  the  school-board,  was  very  prosperous  till  the  County 
Committee,  by  granting  subventions  to  smaller  schools  in  the 
neighbourhood,  withdrew  from  the  High  School  the  support  it  had 
formerly  received  from  surrounding  districts.  It  also  suffered 
from  competition  with  the  Harris  and  Morgan  Academies. 
Glasgow  High  School  however  is  believed  to  have  profited  by 
being  placed  under  school-board  management. 

It  was  scarcely  to  be  expected  that  burgh  schools  generally 
would  reap  substantial  benefit  from  being  placed  under  the 
management  of  school-boards,  whose  special  province  was  state- 
aided  schools,  and  whose  power  of  assistance  to  burgh  schools, 
which  most  required  it,  was  limited  in  the  way  above  mentioned. 
There  was  as  yet  neither  rate  nor  grant  for  promoting  the 
efficiency  of  these  schools.  The  "  view  to  promote  the  higher 
education  of  the  country"  as  suggested  by  the  Acts  of  1872  and 
1878  was  so  distant  and  undefined,  as  to  be  practically  out  of 
sight.  The  connection  between  the  school-board  and  the  burgh 
school  was  formal  rather  than  real.  The  state-aided  school  was 
the  child,  the  burgh  school  the  step-child  of  the  board.  The  one 
was  cared  for  and  sometimes  unduly  petted,  the  other  neglected. 
The  one  was  palatially  housed,  but  for  the  other  meaner  pro- 
vision was  thought  good  enough.  It  is  beyond  question  that, 
but  for  the  grants  which  legislation  in  the  end  of  the  19th  century 
made  available  for  higher  education,  many  burgh  schools  must 
have  ceased  to  exist. 

The  two  acts  above  mentioned  had  done  little  to  help  them, 
because  they  could  not.  Some  a.ssistancc  was  got  in  supph-  of 
buildings,  but  no  money  to  enlarge  or  improve  their  staffs.  It  is 
further  to  be  noted  that  attendance  in  the  "  preparatory  depart- 
ment," which  was  the  natural  feeder  of  the  secondary  school,  was, 
in  many  cases,  reduced  by  the  attraction  of  the  superior  premi.ses 


302  FOURTH    PERIOD.      SECONDARY   SCHOOLS  [CH. 

and  lower  fees  of  the  state-aided  school.  There  was  yet  another 
circumstance  unfavourable  to  the  secondary  school.  Grants  were 
offered  to  the  primary  school  for  individual  passes  in  languages 
and  mathematics.  Some  boards,  from  a  praiseworthy  desire  to 
preserve  the  tradition  of  the  old  parish  school  for  instruction 
beyond  the  '  beggarly  elements,'  made  more  or  less  successful 
invasions  into  the  province  of  the  secondary  schools,  and  to  some 
extent  interfered  with  their  success. 

In  dealing  with  the  secondary  education  of  our  third  and 
fourth  periods,  it  is  impossible  to  avoid  reference  to  the  important 
share  taken  in  it  by  the  parish  schools  which,  according  to  the 
report  of  the  Assistant  Commissioners  of  1864,  furnished  more 
than  half  of  the  entrants  to  the  university^  The  extent  to 
which  this  is  true  of  the  parish  schools  of  Aberdeen,  Banff,  and 
Moray,  warrants  their  being  considered  as,  to  quite  an  appreciable 
extent,  secondary  schools.  In  many  small  burghs  the  schools 
originally,  and  for  centuries,  called  "Grammar  Schools"  had 
assumed  largely  the  character  of  parish  schools  and  done 
mainly  elementary  work.  On  the  other  hand  in  large  burghs  they 
had  developed  into  high  schools  or  academies,  and  had  fairly 
earned  the  title  "  secondary,"  but  they  had,  as  a  rule,  no  system 
or  organisation,  and  often  no  central  source  of  authorityl  The 
masters  were  practically  co-ordinate,  each  in  his  own  department 
competing  for  the  others'  pupils,  as  if  each  department  was  a 
separate  school.  In  some  cases  the  head-master  was  invested  with 
rectorial  power,  but  did  not  choose  to  use  it.  From  such  a  system, 
or  want  of  system,  the  best  results  could  not  be  expected.  The 
Act  of  1872  furnished  a  remedy  for  this  by  placing  all  the 
revenues  of  higher  class  schools  in  a  common  fund,  and  causing 
the  fees  to  be  paid  to  the  treasurer  of  the  board,  and  distributed 
among  the  teachers  as  the  board  should  determine.  Such  schools, 
in  small  burghs  which  had  no  endowments,  had  only  fees  and  the 
Common  Good  to  depend  on,  whereas  the  parish  teacher  had 
his  statutory  salary,  which,  though  far  from  munificent,  was 
sufficient  to  attract  men  fit  to  train  students  for  entering  the 
university,  then  barred  by  no  entrance  examination.     It  is  not 

1  Harvey  and  Sellar's  Report  of  I'^di,,  HI,  pp.  9,  10. 

2  Third  Report  of  Commission  <?/  1875,  p.  97. 


XXV]  PARISH   SCHOOLS   AND   SECONDARY   WORK  303 

surprising  that,  in  these  circumstances,  the  work  done  in  the 
junior  classes  of  the  university  was  what  should  have  been  done 
in  the  secondary  school.  It  is  also  probable  that  the  existence 
of  parish  schools  of  this  type  dulled  the  edge  of  a  desire  for 
secondary  schools  proper.  In  the  rural  districts  of  the  three 
counties  of  Aberdeen,  Banff,  and  Moray,  the  need  of  additional 
secondary  schools  was  little  felt.  Throughout  the  rest  of 
Scotland  the  circumstances  were  different.  Graduate  teachers 
were  few,  emoluments  smaller,  and  few  students  went  direct  from 
parish  schools  to  university. 

The  changes  produced  by  the  Act  of  1872  through  the  system 
of  payment  by  results,  and  more  complete  attention  to  the  ordinary 
branches  in  what  were  formerly  parish  schools,  made  it  difficult, 
and  in  many  cases  impossible,  to  give  as  much  time  to  the  higher 
subjects  as  formerly.  The  gap  between  the  ordinary  school  and 
the  university  was  in  these  circumstances  very  considerably 
widened.  That  the  immemorial  connection  should  be,  as  far  as 
possible,  maintained  was  felt  to  be  a  patriotic  duty.  In  order  to 
utilise  the  best  brains  of  the  country  from  whatever  social  class,  it 
was  necessary  that  higher  class  schools  should  be  made  accessible 
to  all  who  could  make  a  profitable  use  of  them.  A  sentence 
of  Lord  Balfour's  Paisley  address  in  1898  is  worth  quoting.  "  If 
Scotland  is  not  to  fall  below  her  traditions,  she  must  recognise 
that  higher  education  is  a  matter  of  interest  to  all  and  not 
merely  to  a  few,  and  that  every  school  must  bear  a  share  in 
what  is  a  connected  work,  viz.  the  construction  of  an  educa- 
tional highway  from  the  infant  class  to  the  ultimate  entry  upon 
the  business  of  life." 

No  one  who  has  read  that  address  can  have  a  shadow  of 
doubt  as  to  the  profound  interest,  the  mastery  of  detail,  the 
breadth  of  view,  and  the  sense  of  responsibility,  which  characterise 
it  throughout.  It  is  the  outcome  of  opinions  gradually  formed 
during  years  of  devoted  attention  to,  and  yeoman  service  in, 
the  cause  of  education  by  Lord  Balfour,  and  of  constant  inter- 
change of  ideas  between  him  and  Sir  Henry  Craik.  The 
anomalous  position  of  secondary  schools  in  the  education  field, 
as  compared  on  the  one  hand  with  primary  schools  well  supplied 
with  grants,  and  on  the  other  with  the  university  and  its  large 


304  FOURTH    PERIOD.      SECONDARY   SCHOOLS  [CH. 

resources  of  various  kinds,  while  secondary  education — the 
natural  connecting  link  between  them — depended  largely  on  fees 
and  scanty  endowments,  had  for  years  been  before  the  eye  of  the 
educationist.  The  time  had  come  for  revising  the  wills  of  pious 
founders,  and  noting  to  what  extent,  under  altered  conditions, 
they  were  in  keeping  with  the  original  intentions,  and  bearing 
satisfactory  fruit. 

The  Merchant  Company  of  Edinburgh  in  the  management 
of  their  Hospitals  were  pioneers  in  the  movement  for  reform. 
The  history  of  the  Company,  in  connection  with  education,  goes 
back  to  1695,  when  the  Merchant  Maiden  Hospital  was  founded 
for  the  board  and  education  of  the  female  children  or  grand- 
children "  of  such  who  are  or  were  merchant  burgesses  of 
Edinburgh,  or  ministers  of  Edinburgh,  Canongate,  Leith  or  West 
Church,  or  who  have  been  Governors  of,  or  benefactors  to,  the 
Hospital."  After  more  than  a  hundred  years  the  original 
buildincf  in  Bristo  Street  was  found  to  be  insufficient,  and  in  18 18 
another  was  built  in  Lauriston,  and  after  being  occupied  for 
about  fifty  years  was  sold  to  the  Governors  of  George  Watson's 
Hospital.  At  the  same  time  the  Hopetoun  Rooms  in  Queen 
Street— now  named  the  Edinburgh  Ladies'  College— were 
purchased  by  the  Governors  of  the  Merchant  Maiden  Hospital. 

For  a  short  time  the  Company  discussed  the  question  of 
reform,  and  in  1868  took  energetic  action.  Professional  skill 
was  called  in,  and  a  report  was  given  by  Mr  (afterwards  Pro- 
fessor) Laurie,  disapproving  of  the  monastic  system  as  being  on 
both  moral  and  intellectual  grounds  unwholesome.  The  report 
was  approved  by  the  Committee,  who  thought  that,  if  its  recom- 
mendations were  adopted,  they  would  form  a  basis  for  the 
reorganisation  of  similar  institutions  throughout  Scotland. 
They  were  adopted,  and  led  to  the  Act  of  1869  for  the  better 
government  of  Hospitals  and  endowed  institutions,  which 
probably  suggested,  in  the  Act  of  1878,  the  amendment  dealing 
with  burgh  schools. 

Considerations  of  space  forbid  more  than  a  general  account 
of  the  Company's  action.  The  first  step  in  the  reform  was  a 
tentative  one,  as  when  40  foundationers  of  George  Watson's 
Hospital  were  sent  as  day  scholars  to  the  High  School  ;  but  it  is 


XXV]  THE    ENDOWED   SCHOOLS   OF   EDINBUROH  305 

probably  sufficient  to  state  that,  within  a  little  more  than  a  year 
after  the  Act  of  1869  was  passed,  an  additional  Ladies'  College 
was  opened  in  George  Square,  and  Provisional  Orders  were 
obtained,  authorising  the  Governors  to  board  out  the  founda- 
tioners, and  convert  all  the  Hospitals  into  day  schools.  They  had 
five  to  deal  with,  the  four  most  important  being  George  Watson's 
and  Daniel  Stewart's  for  boys ;  the  Edinburgh  Ladies',  and  George 
Watson's  for  girls.  The  importance  of  the  movement,  so  far  as 
these  colleges  are  concerned,  may  be  gathered  from  the  fact  that, 
instead  of  educating  about  400  foundationers,  day  scholars,  and 
free  scholars,  there  were  enrolled  during  the  first  session  3400 
pupils,  all  of  whom,  except  200  foundationers,  were  fee-paying. 
The  attendance  grew  steadily,  but,  to  meet  the  requirements  of 
the  Scotch  Education  Department,  it  is  reduced  to  about  3500 
in  the  four  colleges,  which  are  admirabl}'  staffed,  and  furnish 
every  year  to  the  university  a  large  contingent  of  students,  male 
and  female,  many  of  whom  earn  very  high  distinction.  Besides 
the  privileged  class  of  pupils  already  mentioned,  there  are  com- 
petitive foundations  and  bursaries  in  all  the  four  colleges,  giving 
free  education  and  money  awards  ranging  from  ^^5  to  £1$  per 
annum.  There  are  also  university  bursaries  and  other  valuable 
prizes,  for  which  there  is  always  a  keen  and  most  satisfactory 
competition. 

The  schools,  in  addition  to  classical  and  literary  culture,  are 
well  abreast  of  the  time  in  science  instruction,  theoretical  and 
experimental,  so  that  under  the  present  methods  and  curricula, 
the  whole  of  a  pupil's  character  receives  a  healthy  catholic 
development.  It  is  perhaps  not  too  much  to  say  that  there  arc 
few  if  any  schools  in  Great  Britain  which  attract  pupils  from 
a  wider  area  all  over  the  world,  or  whose  finished  products  are 
more  widely  and  beneficially  distributed  in  every  civilised  countr}-, 
than  the  schools  of  the  Merchant  Company  of  Edinburgh. 

The  fifth  above  referred  to — James  Gillespie's — was  originally 
a  Hospital  for  indigent  old  men  and  women,  and  a'  Free  School ' 
for  poor  boys.  The  funds  and  trusts  of  the  Hospital  and  Free 
School  were  united.  Pensions  were  allotted  to  the  Foundationers, 
and  the  building  was  converted  into  a  day  school,  which  was 
conducted  with  great  success,  first  as  a  primary  and  latterly  as 

K.  E.  20 


306  FOURTH    PERIOD.      SECONDARY  SCHOOLS  [CH. 

a  higher  grade  school  till  1908,  when  it  was  taken  over  by  the 
school-board. 

The  Heriot  trustees  attempted  to  follow  suit  in  1871;  but, 
in  deference  to  a  representation  by  upwards  of  300  Edinburgh 
teachers,  who  complained  of  the  injury  done  to  other  schools 
in  the  city  by  the  Merchant  Company's  provisional  order,  the 
Home  Secretary  declined  to  issue  any  others  till  further  enquiry 
was  made.  Another  and  successful  application  was  made  in 
1885.  Since  then  the  career  of  Heriot's  School  has  been  marked 
by  the  same  success  as  those  of  the  Merchant  Company.  From 
180  pupils  it  has  risen  to  1 100 ;  its  staff  and  management  are  all 
that  could  be  wished.  To  an  excellent  training  in  ordinary 
subjects  there  is  added  advanced  instruction  in  Latin,  modern 
languages,  and  scientific  technical  subjects.  From  the  technical 
department,  which  is  fully  equipped  as  a  science  school,  students 
go  every  year  to  the  university  and  complete  their  education 
with  marked  success.  The  daughters  of  beneficiaries  are  all 
carefully  educated.  Those  who  have  desire  and  capacity  to 
make  a  profitable  use  of  higher  education  receive  it  in  the 
higher  class  Ladies'  Colleges  of  the  Merchant  Company. 

That  reform  of  the  hospital  system  was  felt  to  be  necessary, 
on  the  ground  of  both  efficiency  and  economy,  is  shown  by  the 
fact  that  important  hospitals  generally  throughout  Scotland 
applied,  or  proposed  to  apply,  for  provisional  orders. 

Acting  under  the  terms  of  his  will,  the  trustees  of  Allan 
Glen,  master  wright  in  Glasgow,  established  in  1853  a  school  in 
which  was  given  gratuitously  a  good  practical  education  to 
about  50  boys,  "sons  of  tradesmen  or  persons  in  the  industrial 
classes  of  society."  In  1872  the  building  was  added  to  and 
accommodation  provided  for  150  pupils.  Four  years  later  a 
momentous  change  took  place.  The  trustees  approached 
parliament  in  1876  and  obtained  "  Allan  Glen's  Institution  Act," 
and  the  school  became  in  1878  a  fee-paying  secondary  school,  in 
which  a  liberal  education  and  systematic  instruction  in  the 
chemical,  physical,  and  mechanical  sciences,  were  provided  for. 
Free  scholarships  and  bursaries  were  founded.  The  curricula 
had  been  determined  mainly  with  regard  to  the  educational 
needs  of  industrial  Glasgow,  and  the  work  commenced  in  1878 


XXV]   THE  ENDOWED  SCHOOLS  OF  GLASGOW  AND  ABERDEEN    307 

was,  so   far  as  Scotland  is  concerned,  of  a  pronouncedly  pioneer 
character. 

In  1887  the  trustees  of  Allan  Glen  were  absorbed  into  the 
body  of  governors  of  the  Glasgow  and  West  of  Scotland 
Technical  College  by  the  commissioners  appointed  under  the 
"  Educational  Endowments  (Scotland)  Act  1882,"  and  the  organi- 
sation and  aims  of  1876  were  confirmed.  The  rate  of  progress  in 
amount  and  quality  of  science  work  overtaken  is  indicated  by 
the  payment  of  grants  rising  from  ^^515  in  1880  to  ;i^ 2 940  in 
1907.  That  the  training  involved  in  exact  science  has  no 
crippling  effect  on  liberal  and  professional  studies  seems  to  be 
demonstrated  by  the  fact  that,  during  the  past  eleven  years, 
former  pupils  of  this  school  have  been  awarded  144  university 
degrees  (a  large  number  being  honours)  and  a  correspondingly 
large  number  of  first  prizes  and  medals.  While  a  large  number 
of  the  youths  trained  in  this  institution  are  finding  careers  in 
engineering,  manufactures,  and  commerce,  the  professions  of 
medicine  and  of  teaching  have  received  many  most  able  recruits, 
and  many  are  to  be  found  in  the  employment  of  the  state,  in 
the  civil  and  medical  services  of  India,  the  inspection  of  factories, 
&c.  During  the  current  session  (1907-8)  there  were  on  the 
roll  over  700  pupils. 

In  Aberdeen,  Robert  Gordon's  Hospital,  which  dates  from 
1732,  was  conducted  on  strictly  monastic  lines  till  1881.  Boys 
to  the  number  of  about  120  were  received  into  the  Hospital, 
maintained,  and  educated  there,  until  they  attained  the  age  of 
15  years.  A  sound  general  education  was  given  including,  at 
least  latterly,  Latin,  French,  and  Mathematics.  The  subject  of 
Latin  was  indeed  specially  enjoined  in  the  Deed  of  Foundation. 
In  1881  a  new  provisional  order  was  obtained,  under  which  the 
Governors  were  empowered  to  convert  the  hospital  buildings, 
wholly  or  partly,  into  a  college  or  day  school,  "in  which  the 
chief  subjects  of  instruction  shall  be  the  English  Language  and 
Literature,  History  and  Geography,  Modern  Languages,  Mathe- 
matics, and  the  elements  of  Physical  and  Natural  Science." 
They  were  also  empowered  to  admit  fee-pa)ing  day  scholars. 
The  standard  of  admission  is  that  required  of  pupils  passing 
from  the  junior  to  the  senior  division   of  elementary  schools 

20 — 2 


308  FOURTH    PERIOD.      SECONDARY   SCHOOLS  [CH. 

(Scotch  code).  The  college  as  a  day  school  includes  three 
departments,  (i)  A  primary  department,  with  i6o  pupils, 
ending  with  the  qualifying  examination  ;  (2)  an  intermediate 
department,  with  550  pupils,  organised  so  as  to  meet  the  require- 
ments of  the  intermediate  certificate  examinations,  the  curriculum 
including  English,  Mathematics,  at  least  one  foreign  language, 
Science,  Drawing;  (3)  a  secondary  department  with  170  pupils, 
subdivided  into  classical  and  modern  sides.  The  classical 
curriculum  includes  both  Latin  and  Greek  ;  the  modern  gives 
special  place  to  modern  languages,  Mathematics,  and  Science. 

The  provisional  order  of  1881  also  conferred  powers  on  the 
Governors  to  carry  on  "  day  or  evening  classes  for  boys,  girls, 
and  adult  persons  in  primary,  secondary,  mechanical,  physical 
or  such  other  subjects  as  the  Governors  may  from  time  to  time 
consider  proper  or  necessary."  In  other  words  they  were 
empowered  to  establish  schemes  of  technical  instruction.  This 
power  they  made  use  of  in  establishing  evening  classes,  and 
when,  a  few  years  later,  they  became  managers  of  a  new  school 
of  art  founded  and  built  by  John  Gray,  engineer,  Aberdeen,  they 
were  able  to  take  over  the  whole  of  the  work  of  the  Mechanics' 
Institute,  and  carry  on  an  extensive  scheme  of  instruction  in 
subjects  of  science,  art,  and  technology  in  connection  with  the 
old  Science  and  Art  Department,  South  Kensington,  and  the 
City  and  Guilds  of  London  Technical  Institute.  A  further 
important  development  of  technical  instruction  took  place  in 
1893,  when  the  Governors  and  the  school-board  entered  into 
a  joint  scheme  for  the  promotion  of  technical  instruction. 

The  school-board  took  charge  of  all  technical  work  that 
could  be  overtaken  in  elementary  and  intermediate  continuation 
classes,  while  the  Governors  took  charge  of  the  more  advanced 
work.  For  this  purpose  the  day  and  evening  classes  of  the 
School  of  Art  and  the  evening  classes  of  the  college  were 
constituted  into  a  central  institution.  In  the  day  classes  of  the 
School  of  Art  the  course  of  instruction  extends  over  four  years, 
and  students  who  complete  the  course  successfully  are  with  the 
approval  of  the  Scotch  Education  Department  awarded  the 
diploma  of  the  school.  There  are  60  students  in  the  day  classes. 
In  the  evening  classes  of  the  college  and  the  School  of  Art  the 


XXV]  REORGANISATION    OF   SECONDARY   SCHOOLS  309 

courses  are  arranged  to  meet  the  requirements  of  the  leading 
industries  and  crafts  of  the  district,  e.g.  engineers,  architects, 
builders,  stone-cutters,  wood-carvers,  &c.  The  number  of 
students  is  700. 

It  is  to  be  added  that  in  all  these  changes  the  rights  and 
privileges  of  the  foundationers  for  whom  the  original  trust  made 
provision,  are  strictly  conserved. 

Not  more  than  a  passing  reference  is  necessary  or  possible 
to  such  well-known  institutions  as  the  Edinburgh  High  School, 
whose  history  dates  back  to  the  beginning  of  the  12th  century, 
the  Edinburgh  Academy,  the  Edinburgh  Institution,  Loretto, 
Merchiston,  Glenalmond  and  Fettes  College.  They  have  all  had 
a  succession  of  Rectors  generally  of  high  educational  reputation, 
and  can  point  to  long  lists  of  distinguished  pupils  of  which  any 
school  may  be  justly  proud.  Much  the  same  may  be  said  of 
similar  institutions  in  Glasgow,  the  High  School,  the  Academy, 
the  Kelvinside  Academy,  Hutcheson's  Educational  Trust,  Dollar 
Institution  in  Clackmannan,  Montrose  Academy  in  Forfarshire, 
and  others  in  the  north  and  south  of  Scotland.  All  have  more 
or  less  broadened  their  curricula  in  keeping  with  the  temper  of 
the  time  in  regard  to  instruction  in  science.  In  one  respect  Fettes 
College,  opened  in  1886,  differs  from  all  the  others.  By  the  trust 
deed  of  Sir  William  Fettes,  Lord  Provost  of  Edinburgh,  the 
trustees  were  allowed  a  large  discretion  as  to  the  management  of 
the  bequest,  and  in  view  of  the  large  number  of  Hospitals  for  the 
lower  and  middle  classes,  they  decided  that  the  children  of  the 
professional  or  upper  middle  class  left  insufficiently  provided  for 
were  the  proper  objects  for  the  benefits  of  the  endowment.  The 
number  of  the  foundationers  is  50,  and  the  number  of  fee-paying 
scholars  is  from  170  to  180.  There  are  no  out-door  or  day 
pupils.  Besides  open  scholarships  varying  in  value  from  ^^30  to 
£60  there  are  12  foundation  scholarships  for  which  only  boys 
educated  in  state-aided  schools  or  schools  necessarily  under 
government  inspection  can  compete.  The  college  is  conducted 
on  the  lines  of  an  English  public  school  and  has  a  very  high 
reputation. 

To  deal  in  full  detail  with  other  kindred  institutions  would  be 
tedious  and  unnecessary.     Of  the  impulse  given  to  the  spread 


310  FOURTH    PERIOD.      SECONDARY   SCHOOLS  [CH. 

and  depth  of  advanced  work  in  classical,  commercial,  and 
technical  education  it  is  sufficient  to  say  that  it  has  been 
eminently  vigorous  and  healthy.  The  dullness  almost  insepar- 
able from  life  under  monastic  rules  has  been  banished.  A  spirit 
of  emulation  has  been  infused  into  the  work  by  the  admission  of 
outside  pupils.  The  mixture  of  classes  has  been  entirely  salutary. 
The  presence  of  the  poor  but  able  boy,  for  whom  hard  work  and 
success  were  imperative,  gave  a  spur  to  the  son  of  the  well-to-do 
merchant,  who,  having  no  such  motive  for  application,  might  be 
tempted  into  comparative  idleness.  Competition  for  bursaries 
has  been  keen  and  the  schools  have  flourished.  Money  however 
was  still  wanted.  The  Endowed  Schools  Commission  of  1872 
recommended  that  the  bursary  system  should  commence  lower 
down,  so  as  to  connect  the  primary  school  with  the  secondary'. 
Throughout  Scotland  about  ^6000  was  available  for  bursary 
purposes  for  both  primary  and  secondary  education.  About 
half  that  sum  was  destined  for  secondary  schools.  The  majority 
of  the  bursaries  were  small,  many  doing  little  more  than  paying 
the  school  fees.  Others  of  greater  value  were  indifferently 
managed.  The  university  bursaries  were  fewer  and  more  valu- 
able. Except  in  Aberdeen  and  Edinburgh,  in  the  early  sixties 
the  majority  were  awarded  by  presentation,  poverty  being  very 
often  a  condition.  In  many  cases  they  were  sought  for  their 
money  value,  from  no  educational  aim,  and  given  without 
competition  simply  as  charitable  doles  to  the  importunate. 
Often  the  condition  of  going  to  the  university  was  not  fulfilled, 
the  money  wasted,  and  positive  harm  done.  There  were  many 
exceptions  who  gained  bursaries  and  some  who  highly  distin- 
guished themselves,  but  the  administration  was  on  the  whole 
unsatisfactory,  and  the  only  genuine  reform  was  to  throw  all 
bursaries  open  to  competition.  This  was  to  a  large  extent  done 
between  twenty  and  thirty  years  later.  What  was  wanted  was 
a  system  of  open  bursaries  leading  from  the  primary  to  the 
secondary  school,  and  thence  to  the  university.  Now  that  sound 
primary  education  is  within  the  reach  of  rich  and  poor  alike, 
there  is  generally  no  good  reason  for  taking  account  of  poverty 
in  the  award.    The  poor  and  the  well-to-do  boy  start  as  a  rule  on 

^  Endowed  Schools  Commission,  1875.     Third  Report, '^.  iii. 


XXV]      LINKING  OF  PRIMARY  AND  SECONDARY  SCHOOLS         3  I  I 

equal  terms  except  in  one  important  respect,  viz.  that  a  well-to- 
do  parent  may  provide  private  tuition  for  his  son  which  will 
give  him  the  advantage  over  the  possibly  cleverer  poor  boy. 
The  secondary  school  and  the  university  are  not  for  the  boy 
who  is  poor  both  in  purse  and  brains.  Let  all  bursaries  be 
unrestricted,  and  a  stimulus  would  be  given  to  education  over 
the  whole  of  Scotland  like  that  which  the  bursary  competition 
in  Aberdeen  has  given  to  the  three  Dick  Bequest  counties.  The 
removal  of  all  local  restriction  would  doubtless  bear  hard  on 
rural  schools,  which,  though  probably  needing  bursaries  most, 
could  not  compete  on  equal  terms  with  the  best  schools  in 
university  towns,  but  it  would  certainly  be  on  the  whole  better 
if  local  restriction  were  less  common  than  it  is. 

Zeal  for  higher  education  is  not  more  indigenous  in  the  Dick 
Bequest  counties  than  elsewhere  in  Scotland.  The  rural  character 
of  the  district,  and  the  fewer  openings  into  commercial  life  may 
to  some  extent  account  for  the  prominence  given  to  university 
studies,  but  the  difference  in  their  educational  position  is  mainly, 
perhaps  entirely,  due  to  the  fact  "that  an  education  of  better 
quality,  stimulated  by  rewards  adapted  to  varying  degrees  of 
merit,  and  judiciously  organised,  is  ready  to  hand,  and  therefore 
taken  advantage  of  Custom  has  no  doubt  increased  the  demand, 
and  this  is  precisely  the  result  which  every  educationist  would 
welcome  as  the  desirable  and  legitimate  outcome  of  efficient 
organisation  ^" 

Act  of  1878  i?is 7 efficient 

There  was  at  this  time  (1882)  a  strong  feeling  among  those 
interested  in  education,  that  something  more  than  the  Act  of 
1878  was  required  to  remedy  the  anomalous  and  practical!)- 
isolated  position  of  secondary  schools,  so  as  to  secure  for  the 
middle  class  a  fair  measure  of  educational  justice.  It  was  felt 
that  the  primary  school  satisfactorily  met  the  wants  of  the  poor 
man  who  had  no  higher  ambition,  and  that  it  was  no  hardship 
for  the  rich  man  to  send  his  son  to  expensive  schools  in  England 
or  elsewhere,  but  that  insufficient  provision  was  made  for  the 

'  Scottish  Review,  May  1883,  p.  14. 


312  FOURTH    PERIOD.      SECONDARY   SCHOOLS  [CH. 

poor  or  middle-class  man  of  moderate  means,  who,  though 
contributing  largely  to  education  rates,  and  aiming  at  higher 
education  for  his  son,  was  obliged  to  be  content  with  what  could 
be  got  at  a  primary  school.  Most  people  will  agree  with  the 
opinion  that  there  can  be  no  more  fatal  error  than  to  contend 
that  higher  education  is  only  for  the  well-to-do.  It  is  evident 
that  the  governing  class  is  being  increasingly  recruited  from  the 
middle  class,  and  that  it  is  politically  desirable  that  the  latter 
should  by  being  well  educated  be  fitted  to  contribute  to  the 
supply  of  wise  legislation.  Motives  of  high  policy,  as  well  as 
general  fairness,  had  a  large  share  in  the  education  acts  that 
followed. 

The  Educational  Endowments  (Scotland)  Act  of  1882  which 
had  for  its  object  the  reorganisation  of  endowments,  which  were 
not  satisfactorily  serving  their  original  purpose,  increased  the 
attention  that  was  being  paid  to  higher  education.  It  is  no 
longer  in  force,  but  the  commissioners  appointed  under  it  framed 
a  number  of  useful  schemes  which  were  utilised  in  subsequent 
legislation. 

It  was  however  with  the  reorganisation  of  the  Scotch  Educa- 
tion Department  in  1885  and  the  appointment  of  Mr  (now 
Sir  Henry)  Craik  as  secretary,  that  secondary  education  became 
the  subject  of  earnest  and  general  interest,  and  entered  on  a 
career  of  reform  which  has  been  pursued  with  unflagging  zeal  to 
the  present  day.  Previous  to  that  time  the  Department  con- 
cerned itself  with  only  the  fringe  of  higher  education  in  the  form 
of  specific  subjects  in  the  primary  schools.  In  the  report  for 
1886  there  was  for  the  first  time  a  distinct  reference  to  higher 
class  schools,  especially  endowed  schools,  and  their  inspection  by 
the  Department.  This  inspection  was  compulsory  in  terms  of 
the  Educational  Endowments  Act  of  1882.  The  report  of  1886 
says  that  this  will  form  one  of  the  most  important  functions  of 
the  Department,  and  that  the  most  careful  consideration  will  be 
given  to  the  future  development  of  the  system.  Whatever 
difference  of  opinion  may  exist  as  to  minor  details  of  administra- 
tion, it  must  be  frankly  admitted  that  this  promise  has  been 
faithfully  kept  with  singleness  of  aim  and  sincerity  of  purpose. 
From  this  time  secondary  education  has  in  the  annual  report 


XXV]  THE    LEAVING   CERTIFICATE    EXAMINATIONS  313 

a  distinct  place,  and  sympathetic  consideration  for  the  adverse 
circumstances  against  which  many  higher  schools  had  to  struggle, 
— short  and  irregular  attendance,  inadequate  stafif,  unsatisfactory 
buildings,  antiquated  methods,  languidness  of  local  voluntary 
effort,  &c. 

The  inspection  of  secondary  schools  commenced  in  1886, 
and  in  1888  the  institution  of  the  Leaving  certificate  examination 
was  definitely  carried  out  by  Sir  Henry  Craik.  It  was  felt  that 
no  development  of  specific  subjects  could  furnish  a  sound 
secondary  education.  It  was  a  bold  and  has  proved  to  be  a 
most  successful  experiment.  It  has  undergone,  as  was  to  be 
expected,  a  good  many  changes  in  examination  details,  and 
doubtless  others  suggested  by  experience  will  follow.  A  sum- 
mary of  the  steps  by  which  it  has  reached  its  present  position 
may  not  be  out  of  place. 

The  opinion  of  school-boards  was  asked  as  to  the  subjects 
which  should  be  embraced  in  it,  the  standard  which  should  be 
aimed  at  and  the  most  suitable  time  for  holding  it.  In  short 
the  co-operation  of  those  acquainted  with  the  wants  and  possi- 
bilities of  their  several  districts  was  requested  and  utilised. 
The  universities  also  were  consulted  as  to  how  the  examination 
might  be  made  adequately  testing,  and  so  workably  elastic, 
as  not  to  impose  undesirable  restraint  on  the  individuality 
of  schools.  It  may  be  said  generally  that  excellent  results 
have  followed  its  institution,  and  that  no  pains  have  been  spared 
to  make  it  a  success.  "  In  view  of  the  strong  representations 
made  in  favour  of  the  issue  of  Leaving  Certificates,  not  in  single 
subjects,  but  in  groups,  it  was  in  1900  decided  as  a  preliminary 
experiment  to  begin  by  issuing  such  grouped  certificates,  in 
addition  to  any  issued  in  single  subjects.  These  group  certifi- 
cates are  issued  to  those  candidates  who  have  received  higher 
instruction  for  not  less  than  four  years  in  some  recognised  school, 
and  who  have  obtained,  during  that  period,  certificates  of  the 
higher  grade,  or  in  honours,  in  at  least  four  subjects,  of  which 
one  must  be  English,  one  an  ancient  or  a  modern  foreign 
language,  and  one  mathematics  or,  in  the  case  of  girls,  higher 
arithmetic.  Two  certificates  of  the  lower  grade  are,  for  the 
present,  accepted   in  lieu  of  the  fourth  certificate  of  the  higher 


314  FOURTH    PERIOD.      SECONDARY   SCHOOLS  [CH. 

grade,  and  a  Leaving  Certificate  in  science  ma}'  replace  a  certificate 
of  the  higlier  grade  in  an  ancient  or  a  modern  foreign  language^" 
As  the  result  of  consultation,  changes  have  been  made  from  year 
to  year.  Among  these  we  find  the  introduction  in  1902  of  the 
intermediate  certificate,  which  is  meant  to  meet  the  case  of  pupils 
who  cannot  remain  long  enough  at  school  to  gain  the  Leaving 
certificate  proper,  which  indicates  a  completed  secondary  course 
of  instruction,  and  four  years'  attendance  at  a  recognised  school. 

While  there  is  considerable  freedom  of  choice,  every  candi- 
date must  have  had  specific  training  in  either  language  or  science. 
The  holder  of  a  Leaving  certificate  is  prepared  for  entering  upon 
university  study.  The  intermediate  certificate  implies  fitness 
for  commencing  literary,  commercial  or  technical  study  or  the 
curriculum  for  junior  students  who  represent  the  pupil-teachers 
of  former  days.  The  minimum  age  for  the  former  is  17,  for  the 
latter  15.  "The  fundamental  conditions  of  issue  ought,  there- 
fore, to  be — that  the  course  of  education  to  whose  completion  it 
testifies,  is  sound,  judged  by  educational  principles  ;  that  it 
has  a  clear  aim  and  purpose  ;  and  that,  in  each  subject  of  the 
course,  the  instruction  is  given  by  teachers  of  proved  competency. 
Upon  the  observance  of  these  principles  my  Lords  now  propose 
to  insists"  One  cannot  but  admire  the  provision  made  in  this 
circular  against  the  risk  of  a  chance  verdict  on  the  result  of 
examination  papers,  by  giving  "  substantial  weight  to  the  opinion 
of  the  various  teachers  through  whose  hands  a  pupil  may  have 
passed,"  just  as  in  dealing  with  the  qualifying  examination  for 
supplementary  courses  the  teacher's  opinion  about  the  pupil  is 
taken  into  account,  and  in  the  training  of  students  a  record  is 
kept  of  their  work,  school  history  and  general  fitness.  The 
teachers  of  intermediate  and  secondary  schools  are  invited  to 
assume  a  proper  share  of  responsibility  for  the  certificates  to  be 
awarded.  The  deliberate  judgment  of  the  teachers  as  to  the 
proficiency  of  candidates  will  be  considered  before  an  inter- 
mediate certificate  is  awarded  or  withheld. 

Provision  is  also  made  for  the  issue  of  specialised  courses  for 
candidates  for  the  army,  the  conditions  to  be  fulfilled  being,  that 

^  Report  on  Secondary  Education.,  njor,  \i.  289. 
^  Circular  389,  1906. 


XXV]   REQUIREMENTS  OF  THE  CERTIFICATE  EXAMINATION    3I  5 

the  candidates  must  be  pupils  of  approved  schools,  must  be  not 
less  than  17  years  of  age,  must  have  gained  the  intermediate 
certificate,  and  have  afterwards  attended  for  not  less  than  one 
session  a  school  having  a  definitely  planned  curriculum  previously 
submitted  to  and  approved  by  the  department'. 

The  development  of  specialised  certificates — technical  and 
commercial — in  1906  has  not  been  so  great  as  was  expected. 
There  has  been  a  distinct  increase  in  the  number  of  candidates 
for  the  technical  certificate,  and  fair  success  in  gaining  it.  The 
account  given  of  the  commercial  certificate  is,  so  far,  unsatisfac- 
tory. "  Of  eleven  candidates,  drawn  from  three  schools,  no  fewer 
than  ten  failed  to  satisfy  the  conditions  proposed  by  the  mana- 
gers and  approved  by  the  department-."  Commercial  certificates 
should  mark  the  successful  conclusion  of  a  curriculum  specially 
suited  for  lads  who  propose  to  enter  on  a  business  career,  and 
are  not  less  than  16  years  of  age.  This  certificate  is  to  be  given 
only  to  pupils  in  schools  which  have  a  regularly  organised 
commercial  department.  The  proposal  of  a  commercial  certifi- 
cate doubtless  owes  its  origin  to  the  dissatisfaction  often 
expressed  with  the  defective  education  of  merchant's  apprentices. 
This  dissatisfaction  will  continue,  and  ought  not  to  cause  either 
surprise  or  complaint.  As  long  as  merchants  take,  as  apprentices, 
lads  of  from  13  to  14  years  of  age,  they  have  themselves  to 
blame.  The  evil  will  be  cured  if  they  will  refuse  such  young 
boys,  and  not  grudge  paying  a  little  more  for  older  ones. 

Though  the  Leaving  certificate  scheme  is  not  yet  perfect,  the 
reports  of  examiners  show  that  teaching  in  schools  has  been  very 
beneficially  influenced  by  it.  This  was  certain  to  result  from 
the  careful  examination  of  the  papers,  and  the  suggestions  made 
upon  them  year  after  year.  While  all  subjects  passed  under 
review,  and  were  commented  on  with  a  view  to  removal  of 
weaknesses,  English  and  modern  languages  especially  on  their 
literary  side  have  been,  more  frequently  than  others,  unfavour- 
ably criticised.  Later  reports  however  bear  that  in  them  also 
there  is  distinct  improvement.  In  modern  languages  oral 
examination  as  a  test  of  pronunciation  has  been  added  as  an 

'  Circular  392,  1906. 

^  Report  on  Seiondary  Educatioit,  1906,  p.  897. 


3l6  FOURTH    PERIOD.      SECONDARY  SCHOOLS  [CH. 

element  in  pass  or  failure,  and  is  quite  as  essential  in  assessing 
merit  in  them,  as  laboratory  and  experimental  work  is  in  scientific 
subjects. 

With  regard  to  both  ancient  and  modern  languages,  while 
there  is  considerable  room  for  improvement  in  respect  of  accu- 
racy, taste,  and  literary  appreciation,  the  movement  is  on  the 
whole  clearly  a  forward  one.  In  science  the  examination  is 
chiefly  oral  and  practical,  and  the  method,  being  new,  is  some- 
what imperfectly  understood  by  both  pupils  and  teachers.  More 
attention  should  be  given  to  theory  and  the  discussion  of 
principles  in  connection  with  demonstration  experiments  in  the 
laboratory.     In  these  respects  however  gratifying  progress  is  also 

reported. 

There  may  be  room  for  different  opinions  as  to  whether  the 
anomalous  and  comparatively  unaided  condition  of  burgh  schools 
of  forty  years  ago  has  been  completely  rectified,  but  there  can  be 
no  doubt  about  the  very  substantial  advance  that  has  been  made 
in  hio-her  education  by  the  conversion  of  monastic  hospitals  into 
public  day  schools,  and  eleemosynary  doles  into  bursaries  for 
open  competition.  Thanks  to  the  legislation  of  the  last  quarter 
of  a  century,  funds  have  been  made  available  by  means  of  which 
better  buildings,  more  complete  equipments,  and  a  larger  staff  of 
teachers  have  been  supplied.  Science  has  taken  a  prominent 
place  in  education  fairly  in  keeping  with  the  ever-widening  area 
of  scientific  pursuits,  and  the  consequently  increasing  demand 
for  skilled  workers  in  scientific  investigation.  Many  schools, 
whose  very  existence  was  in  danger,  have  got  a  new  lease  of  life, 
and  to  higher  education,  literary  and  scientific  alike,  a  vigorous 
impulse  has  been  communicated,  from  which  excellent  results 
may  be  confidently  expected.  The  condition  of  the  burgh  school, 
though  not  yet  quite  satisfactory,  has  at  any  rate  been  greatly 
ameliorated.  Much  of  this  beneficent  change  is  due  to  the  zeal 
of  the  Education  Department,  from  the  judicious  use  they  have 
on  the  whole  made  of  the  funds  at  their  disposal. 

One  cannot  read  the  reports  on  secondary  education,  since 
Sir  Henry  Craik  took  it  in  hand  in  1885,  without  seeing  that  they 
show  a  continuous  record  of  warm  interest  in  the  subject,  and  a 
masterly  grasp  of  all  its  details.     They  represent  twenty  years 


XXV]  IMPROVEMENT   OF   SECONDARY    SCHOOLS  317 

of  eminently  successful  work.  Difficulties  have  been  courageously 
faced  and  to  a  most  gratifying  extent  overcome.  The  hindrances 
were  by  no  means  small.  Conflicting  interests  of  existing  schools 
had  to  be  dealt  with  ;  languid  local  effort  stimulated  ;  undue 
timidity  of  school-boards  in  availing  themselves  of  the  offers  made 
to  them  banished  ;  misuse  of  funds  by  too  many  Town  Councils 
and  secondary  committees  checked ;  deficient  staffs  strengthened ; 
unsatisfactory  buildings  renovated ;  and  antiquated  methods 
changed.  Year  after  year,  attention  was  directed  to  all  these 
points.  Suggestions  for  adapting  bursars  from  state-aided  schools 
to  the  curriculum  of  higher  class  schools  were  proposed ; 
encouragement  was  given  to  honest  effort;  and  judicious  criticisms 
on  weaknesses  were  offered  in  a  kindly  spirit.  The  measure  of 
success  which  has  attended  Sir  Henry's  efforts  is  something  of 
which  he  may  be  proud,  and  for  which  Scotland  should  be  grate- 
ful. Commencing  as  he  did  in  1886  with  the  inspection  of  31 
secondary  and  preparatory  schools,  in  1906  the  number  had  risen 
to  109.  It  is  not  a  small  matter  that  in  1903  the  candidates  for 
Leaving  certificates  numbered  19,509.  This  however  was  not 
maintained,  for  in  1904  the  number  had  fallen  to  19,090.  No 
figures  are  published  for  the  three  subsequent  years,  but  in  1908 
we  find  only  10,827.  This  considerable  decrease  is  to  be  accounted 
for  by  the  abolition  of  lower  arithmetic  as  a  separate  paper  and 
the  ruling  out  of  schools  presenting  candidates  in  lower  English 
and  lower  arithmetic  only.  It  is  worthy  of  note  that  more  than 
a  dozen  university  and  professional  authorities  had  already 
accepted  the  certificate  in  place  of  the  preliminary  examination 
for  the  university. 

In  Dr  Struthers'  report  on  secondary  education  in  1906 
mention  is  made  of  this  rapid  development  in  the  inspection  of 
secondary  schools  during  the  previous  quarter  of  a  century,  more 
than  half  of  109  schools  being  either  under  public  management 
or  endowed  schools,  while  the  remainder  were  under  private 
management'.  In  his  report  for  the  previous  year  he  had  directed 
attention  to  the  improper  use,  in  some  cases,  of  higher  grade 
schools  in  which  pupils  were  enrolled  who  had  neither  the 
education  necessary  for  the  curriculum,  nor  the  intention  of  com- 

'  Report  on  Secondary  Education  for  1906,  p.  893. 


3l8  FOURTH    PERIOD.      SECONDARY   SCHOOLS  [CH. 

pleting  the  three  years'  attendance  contemplated.  It  is  pointed 
out  that  it  is  the  obvious  duty  of  the  managers  of  both  secondary 
and  higher  grade  schools  to  work  in  the  direction  of  co-operation  ; 
that,  in  districts  where  no  secondary  school  was  available,  the 
managers  of  higher  grade  schools  should  advance  their  curriculum 
beyond  that  of  an  intermediate  centre  as  far  as  possible  in  the 
direction  of  a  secondary  school. 

In  the  meantime  the  new  regulations  for  the  training  of 
teachers  have  furnished  for  higher  grade  schools  work  which  was 
probably  not  contemplated  at  the  time  they  were  instituted.  They 
furnished  a  three  years'  curriculum  which  had  for  its  aim  the 
award  of  the  intermediate  certificate,  and  was  therefore  suitable 
for  intending  junior  students.  This  point  once  gained,  accepted 
iunior  students  would,  as  a  rule,  get  their  training  as  teachers  in 
secondary  schools,  many  of  which  are  fully  equipped  for  the  pur- 
pose, or  in  higher  grade  schools  approved  by  the  Department 
as  suitable  centres  for  the  training  of  junior  students.  The 
new  system  is  as  yet  only  on  its  trial,  and  some  years  must 
pass  before  its  efficiency  can  be  tested ;  but  it  is  feared  by 
many  that  the  small  amount  of  time  that  is  proposed  to  be 
devoted  to,  or  can  be  secured  for,  practically  handling  a  class  and 
the  acquisition  of  good  method,  will,  except  in  the  case  of  the 
born  teacher,  be  barely  sufficient  for  effective  work. 

In  1887  the  Technical  Schools  (Scotland)  Act  was  passed. 
This  was  the  first  measure  directly  framed  for  giving  substantial 
help  to  higher  schools.  Technical  education  however  was  not 
defined  ;  was  imperfectly  and  variously  understood ;  contributions 
to  its  promotion  were  only  permissive,  and  the  act  was  practically 
a  dead  letter.     It  was  amended  by  acts  in  1890  and  1892. 

The  Technical  Acts  had  their  origin  in  legislation  about  the 
reduction  of  licences  and  a  tax  on  beer  and  spirits.  The  details 
are  complicated.  It  is  sufficient,  so  far  as  their  educational 
aspect  is  concerned,  to  state  that  the  portion  of  revenue  from  this 
source  that  fell  to  Scotland  after  police  superannuation,  relief  of 
fees  in  state-aided  schools,  pleuro-pneumonia,  and  sanitary 
inspection  had  been  provided  for,  was  permissively  to  be  devoted 
to  the  purposes  of  technical  education  in  such  manner  as  Town 
and  County  Councils  and  police  commissioners  might  determine. 


XXV]      GOVERNMENT  GRANTS  FOR  HIGHER  EDUCATION  319 

It  appears  from  a  return  laid  before  parliament  that  in  1892  the 
contribution  to  this  purpose  was  ;^25,30i,  rather  more  than  half 
of  what  was  available. 

The  origin  of  the  Equivalent  Grant  was  different.  It  came  to 
Scotland  as  an  equivalent  to  a  grant  made  to  England  in  1888 
as  the  proceeds  of  probate  and  other  duties.  In  England  this 
was  given  to  local  authorities  for  relief  of  taxation.  A  consider- 
able portion  of  Scotland's  share  of  the  same  duties  was  devoted 
to  the  relief  of  school  fees.  By  the  Elementary  Education  Act  of 
1 89 1  for  England  it  was  enacted  that,  out  of  moneys  provided  by 
parliament,  a  grant  should  be  given  in  aid  of  the  cost  of 
elementary  education.  Scotland,  on  the  principle  of  equivalents, 
put  in  a  corresponding  claim,  but,  as  relief  of  fees  had  been  already 
secured  in  Scotland  by  section  22  of  the  Local  Government  Act 
of  1889,  the  new  grant  of  ^60,000  was  destined  for  making  better 
provision  for  secondary  education  in  urban  and  rural  districts 
under  minutes  of  the  Department  submitted  to  parliament. 

That  the  object  of  the  grant  was  the  stimulation  of  higher 
education  especially  in  burgh  schools  cannot  be  questioned.  We 
find  Lord  Balfour  of  Burleigh  in  his  speech  at  Paisley  in  1898 
saying:  "  Now  let  us  see  what  was  the  natural  object  of  this  grant. 
It  certainly  ought  to  have  meant  that  the  burgh  and  higher 
schools  in  Scotland  should  be  enabled  to  hold  their  own.  They 
had  no  parliamentary  grants.  They  were  placed  under  the 
school-boards,  but  they  have  had  no  such  parliamentary  aid  as 
was  given  to  other  schools.  Now  out  of  this  fund  surely  help 
should  be  given  to  them," 

In  connection  with  this  grant  a  memorandum  was  presented 
to  Parliament  on  April  12th,  1892,  which  aroused  great  interest 
and  much  hostile  criticism.  Effective  distribution  of  the  grant 
was  far  from  a  simple  matter.  The  interests  of  a  great  variety 
of  schools,  some  charging  fees  of  ^^3,  others  up  to  £;i5  or  more, 
had  to  be  considered.  Little  more  than  a  guess  was  possible  as 
to  the  number  of  additional  pupils  who,  under  its  stimulus,  might 
be  induced  to  take  up  secondar)-  education,  but  it  was  thought 
probable  that  the  addition  would  be  considerable.  With,  as  was 
proposed,  a  capitation  grant  of  ^^3,  increased  attendance,  and  an 
average  fee  not  exceeding  ifj.the  burgh  schools  whose  fees  were 


320  FOURTH   PERIOD.      SECONDARY  SCHOOLS  [CH. 

£4  or  £s  ^vould  have  fared  excellently,  but  those  hitherto 
charging  from  ;^io  to  iJ'15  would  have  been  ruined.  Another 
hindrance  to  approval  of  the  memorandum  was  the  proposal  that 
the  income  from  local  resources  should  not  be  less  than  £i  a  head. 
There  are  few  things  more  unlikely  than  that  school-boards  would 
contribute  £s  a  head  for  pupils  in  secondary  schools,  in  which 
they  had  so  far  shown  but  a  languid  interest,  limited  power  and 
a  loose  connection. 

In  consequence  of  the  general  opposition  encountered  by  the 
memorandum,  a  parliamentary  committee  was  appointed,  with 
Lord  Elgin  for  president,  "  to  inquire  into  the  means  by  which 
the  grant  may  be  so  distributed  as  best  to  promote  the  efficiency 
of  secondary  education,  and  to  open  its  advantages  to  the  largest 
number,  and,  in  particular,  to  consider  whether,  and,  if  so,  with 
what  modifications,  it  is  expedient  to  follow  the  lines  of  the  pro- 
posals embodied  in  the  memorandum  laid  before  Parliament;  or 
whether  it  would  be  expedient  to  establish  county  committees, 
either  adopting  the  Welsh  Intermediate  Education  Act  of  1889, 
or  some  other  constitution  specially  suited  to  Scotland." 

The  committee  conceiving,  no  doubt  correctly,  that  it  was 
beyond  the  scope  of  their  enquiry  to  give  a  complete  account  of 
existing  provisions  for  secondary  education,  say  in  their  report  : 
"  We  have  thought  it  better  to  restrict  ourselves  to  taking 
sufficient  evidence  to  enable  us,  in  the  first  place,  to  elicit  the 
views  of  qualified  persons  in  regard  to  certain  points  raised  by 
the  memorandum,  and,  in  the  second  place,  to  give  an  oppor- 
tunity to  public  bodies,  who  felt  their  interests  involved,  to 
explain  the  representations  with  which  they  had  favoured  usi." 

They  report  the  opinion  as  practically  unanimous  that  an 
average  fee  of  £^  would  impose  a  serious  loss  on  many  schools  ; 
that  they  entirely  agree  with  the  principle  that  localities  should 
contribute,  but  that  to  enforce  a  rule  of  ^3  a  head  would  not  in 
every  case  work  fairly;  and  they  add:  "  We  are  inclined  to  think 
that  the  object  aimed  at  might  be  attained  in  a  more  convenient 
manner,  if  it  was  laid  down,  that  the  locality  must  in  all  cases 
provide  suitable  buildings  from  funds  other  than  this  grant,  and 
that  payment  of  the  grant  should  depend  on  the  supply  of  a 

1  Report  of  Committee  on  Secondary  Education,  1892,  p.  i. 


XXV]  DISTRIBUTION   OF   GOVERNMF.NT   GRANTS  321 

fully  adequate  staff,  and  on  a  satisfactory  report  as  to  the 
curriculum  and  efficiency  of  the  school'."  Among  other  sugges- 
tions they  recommend  a  grant  of  from  /^I20  to  ;^200  to  burgh 
schools,  and  the  appointment  of  county  committees  "  for  defined 
purposes  of  consultation  and  advice"." 

The  minute  based  on  the  report,  though  it  greatly  improved 
the  memorandum,  was  strongly  opposed  in  Parliament  and 
withdrawn.  Lord  Balfour  believed  the  opposition  was  due  to 
its  being  "thought  that  too  much  power  was  given  to  the 
Department  and  too  little  to  the  localities." 

County  and  burgh  committees  were  appointed^and  a  circular 
was  issued  to  them  asking  them  to  state  their  views  upon  a 
system  of  distribution  of  the  grant.  Sir  George  Trevelyan,  then 
Secretary  for  Scotland,  "  wishes  it  to  be  understood,  that  the 
system  on  which  the  opinion  of  your  committee  is  asked  is  one 
under  which  the  local  committee  would  construct  a  scheme 
guided  by  its  own  independent  judgment  as  to  the  requirements 
of  the  locality*."  It  would  serve  no  purpose  to  give  the  answers 
in  detail.  Suffice  it  to  state  that  the  schemes  proposed  by  the 
county  committees  were  characterised  by  marvellous  variety, 
and  in  many  cases  by  bad  economy;  that  15  accepted  the 
responsibility  of  formulating  schemes  ;  and  24  preferred  the 
scheme  in  the  amended  minute  of  January  1893,  which  the 
Department  had  issued  and  withdrawn.  It  is  certainly  remark- 
able and  matter  for  regret,  that  the  Department,  finding  the 
majority  of  the  committees  on  the  whole  favourable  to  their 
amended  scheme,  did  not  adopt  it  rather  than  that  of  the 
minority. 

It  is  obvious  from  a  perusal  of  the  Department's  reports  since 
1892,  that  this  has  been  to  them  matter  for  regret.  Over  and 
over  again  reference  is  made  to  the  dissipation  of  the  equivalent 
grant  in  small  sums  and  for  objects  that  are  in  no  real  sense 
furthering  higher  education.     While  something  is  to  be  said  in 

'   Report  of  Committee  on  Secondary  Kducatioti,  1892,  p.  2. 

■■^  Ibid,  p.  7. 

^  For  each  county  and  for  each  of  the  burghs  of  Edinburgh,  Glasgow,  Aberdeen, 
Dundee  and  Leith,  and  for  the  parisli  of  Govan  there  shall  be  a  committee  on 
secondary  education.     Minute  of  May  1893. 

■•  Circular  152  of  Scotch  Education  Department,  March  i,  1893. 

K.  E.  21 


322  FOURTH    PERIOD.      SECONDARY   SCHOOLS  [CH. 

defence  of  grants  being  paid  to  state-aided  schools  m  many 
districts  in  which  there  are  no  secondary  schools  proper,  and 
where  many  would  not  obtain  higher  education  except  at  the 
schools  in  their  neighbourhood  in  which  a  considerable  amount 
of  secondary  work  was  done,  there  are  many  cases  for  which  the 
same  defence  cannot  be  made.  The  heads  of  the  Department 
had  done  all  they  could  to  check  unsatisfactory  use  of  funds 
clearly  meant  for  secondary  education,  but  their  power  had 
been  limited  by  the  unfortunate  decision  which  allowed  burgh 
and  county  committees,  whose  functions  were  meant  to  be 
consultative  and  advisory,  to  take  upon  themselves  the  much 
more  difficult  task  of  organising  educational  schemes.  It 
cannot  be  denied  that  the  Equivalent  grant,  through  the 
judicious  action  of  many  burgh  and  county  committees,  has 
given  a  healthy  impulse  to  secondary  education,  but  there  has 
been  in  many  cases  regrettable  and  inevitable  waste.  A  grant 
distinctly  meant  for  the  beneiit  of  schools  which  are  not  in 
receipt  of  parliamentary  grants  has  been,  to  a  considerable 
extent,  frittered  away  on  state-aided  schools  doing  little  or 
no  genuinely  secondary  work,  and,  being  in  receipt  of  both 
grants  and  rates,  not  requiring  additional  stimulation.  Lord 
Balfour  in  the  speech  already  referred  to  put  the  case  very 
clearly.  "  The  Department  has,  no  doubt,  to  approve  the  schemes ; 
but  the  initiative  lay  with  each  locality,  and  it  was  obviously 
impossible  for  the  Department  to  insist  upon  any  uniform  scheme, 
or  to  modify  local  proposals  to  such  an  extent,  as  would  make 
the  allocation  according  to  the  various  needs  of  each  county. 
The  result  of  this  was,  as  had  been  foreseen,  that  the  tendency 
arose  to  distribute  the  money  in  small  sums  over  too  many 
schools.  The  distribution  among  counties  having  been  based  on 
population,  the  same  principle  followed  the  distribution  amongst 
the  various  districts.  No  common  standard  was  adopted,  and, 
as  a  consequence,  the  most  inadequate  attempts  to  give  higher 
education  were  often  rewarded  with  a  grant  on  the  same  terms 
as  really  valid  secondary  provision,  towards  which  much  local 
effort  had  been  devoted.  The  Department  has  done  what  was 
in  its  power  to  counteract  this  dissipating  tendency."  These 
attempts  however  were  in  many  cases  successfully  resisted,  the 


XXV]  TFIE    DP:PARTMENT    AM)    LOCAL   COMMITTEES  323 

committees  choosinir  in  terms  of  their  appointment  "  to  be  guided 
by  their  own  independent  judfrmcnt." 

From  the  repeated  references  in  the  annual  rejiorts  to  this 
dissipation  of  i^rants,  it  seems  tolerably  clear,  that  the  leaving  to 
county  councils  the  formation  of  schemes  for  promoting  higher 
education  was  felt  by  the  Department  as  a  drag  on  its  wheels. 
It  is  at  any  rate  safe  to  say  that,  under  its  management,  lessons 
in  swimming,  ambulance  work,  and  training  of  a  fife  band,  how- 
ever useful  in  themselves,  would  not  have  been  regarded  as 
furthering  the  cause  of  higher  education,  as  they  actually  were, 
by  some  county  committees. 

Undeterred  by  the  self-assertive  attitude  of  several  county 
committees,  the  Department  continued  to  show  unabated  interest 
in  secondary  education.  In  a  circular  of  loth  June,  1S97, 
addressed  to  secondary  education  committees,  they  say  that, 
while  desiring  to  preserve  what  has  always  been  a  distinctive 
feature  in  Scottish  education — provision  of  a  certain  amount  of 
secondary  instruction  in  the  ordinary  school — they  think  there 
ought  to  be  a  careful  selection  of  the  schools  to  which  higher 
departments  should  be  attached,  and  such  addition  to  the  staff 
as  will  make  the  higher  work  real,  and  yet  not  interfere  with  the 
primary  instruction.  They  further  suggest  that  "  such  higher 
work  should  not  be  promoted  to  the  injury  of,  or  in  such  a  w  a}- 
as  to  enter  into  undue  competition  with,  any  efficient  higher  class 
school,  which  may  be  available  and  suitable'."  In  1899,  when 
higher  grade  schools  appear  in  the  code  for  the  first  time,  the 
character  proposed  to  be  given  to  them  is  similar  to  that  sketched 
in  the  circular  just  quoted.  They  are  to  be  of  two  kinds, 
predt)minantly  higher  grade  (science)  and  higher  grade  (com- 
mercial) schools.  Meanwhile  the  Act  of  1901,  making  14  the 
age  up  to  which  pupils  who  have  no  professional  aims  must 
remain  at  school,  made  preparation  for  the  profitable  employ- 
ment of  the  )'ears  from  12  to  14  imperative,  in  the  establishment 
of  supplementary  courses,  the  aim  and  character  of  which  have 
been  already  referred  to. 

Up  to  1904  inclusive,  the  requirements  and  function  of  the 
higher  grade  school  were  practically  unchanged.    The  attendance 

'  Circular  letter  lolh  June,  1897,  p.  157. 

21 — :: 


324  FOURTH    PERIOD.      SECONDARY   SCHOOLS  [CH. 

must  cover  at  least  three  years  and  the  staff  must  be  adequate. 
In  the  code  of  1905  (art.  139)  it  is  provided  that  "Pupils  who 
have  completed  a  three  years'  course  according  to  the  approved 
scheme,  and  have  qualified  for  the  award  of  an  intermediate 
certificate,  except  as  regards  the  requirement  of  a  pass  on  the 
higher  grade  standard  in  some  subject  of  the  course,  may  either 
continue  their  studies  on  the  lines  of  their  previous  general 
course,  or  may  receive  an  education  which  is  either  predominantly 
scientific  and  technical,  or  predominantly  commercial,  or  is 
specially  suited  for  girls  (household  management  course)." 
The  steadily  widening  area  of  the  educational  field  made 
absolutely  imperative  the  erection  of  schools  in  which  experi- 
mental science  and  drawing  should  occupy  a  more  prominent 
place  than  in  the  secondary  schools  of  the  past.  That  they 
were  really  wanted  is  shown  by  the  fact  that  between  1900  and 
1906  the  number  of  such  schools  rose  from  31  to  141,  of  which 
127  are  public  schools,  and  14  are  schools  under  voluntary 
management.  At  first,  as  might  be  expected,  mistakes  were 
made.  It  is  quite  clear  that  it  was  not  understood  that  higher 
grade  schools  were  not  intended  for  pupils  who  meant  to  spend 
in  them  two  years  or  so,  but  for  pupils  whose  attendance  is  to 
continue  up  to  15  or  16,  and  who  wish  to  have  a  "well-balanced 
course  of  general  education  "  suitable  for  the  requirements  of 
pupils  leaving  school  at  that  age,  or  for  pupils  who  remain  till 
17  or  18,  and  wish  to  devote  two  or  three  years  to  specialised 
study — literary,  scientific,  technical  or  commercial'.  The  curri- 
culum has  for  its  basis  such  subjects  as  go  to  the  making  of  a 
sound  liberal  education,  to  which  are  added  subjects  predomi- 
nantly commercial  or  scientific  according  to  the  aim  in  view. 
The  subjects  which  must  be  embraced  in  both  courses  are 
English,  history,  geography,  higher  arithmetic,  and  drawing. 
Pupils  taking  the  higher  grade  science  course  must  take  the 
additional  subjects — mathematics,  experimental  science,  and,  as 
a  rule,  some  form  of  manual  work.  Those  who  take  the  higher 
grade  commercial  course  must  take  the  additional  subjects — one 
or  more  modern  languages,  book-keeping,  shorthand,  and  know- 
ledge of  commercial  products.     A  large  discretion  was  left  to 

^  Circular  389,  section  2. 


XXV]  AIMS   OF   THE    NEW    IIICIIER   EDUCATION  325 

managers  in  submitting  courses  of  instruction  for  both  boys  and 
girls,  subject  to  approval  by  the  Department.  This  is  beyond 
question  educationally  sound.  Had  the  pupils'  aim  been  a 
professional  education,  through  the  study  of  such  subjects  as 
have  the  university  as  their  goal,  they  ought  at  the  age  of  12  to 
have  entered  classes  in  a  fully  equipped  secondary  school. 

There  are  now  few  districts  in  Scotland  in  or  near  to  which 
there  is  not  a  higher  grade  school.  We  have  in  this,  as  in  the 
unquestionably  healthy  impulse  given  to  advanced  instruction 
generally,  a  most  gratifying  proof  of  the  progress  with  which  the 
movement  towards  secondary  education  commenced  b)'  Sir 
Henry  Craik  in  1885  has  been  carried  out,  and  advanced  by 
Dr  Struthers  who  succeeded  him   in    1904. 

But  it  is  not  in  secondary  education  alone  that,  since  1898, 
the  educational  area  has  been  widened,  liberalised,  and  raised. 
In  the  ordinar)'  subjects  the  attempts  that  have  been  made  to 
give  to  attainments  intelligence  and  permanence  ;  to  develop  the 
whole  of  a  child's  nature  ;  to  make,  morally  and  physically,  a 
good  citizen ;  to  fit  him  not  only  to  earn  his  living  but  to  enjoy 
his  life,  have  been  eminently  successful.  Similar  improvements 
mark  such  changes  in  the  regulations  for  the  intermediate 
certificate  that  it  "  becomes  the  natural  passport  which  secures 
admission  to  the  various  specialised  courses  whose  institution 
has  been  sanctioned  in  previous  years."  Another  is  the  discon- 
tinuance in  1907  of  'honours  grade'  in  the  Leaving  certificate 
for  two  reasons,  (i)  that  the  'group  .system'  has  made  it 
unnecessary,  and  (2)  that  its  tendency  was  towards  over- 
pressure. 

The  Department,  dissatisfied  with  the  admini.stration  b)-  the 
town  and  county  councils  of  the  funds  at  their  disposal  for  the 
promotion  of  technical  education,  provided  for  an  extended  repre- 
sentation of  such  local  authorities  as  were  willing  to  entrust 
the  administration  to  the  secondary  committees.  The  distribution 
of  the  Residue  grant  by  local  authorities  was  voluntary,  and  ui) 
to  this  time  largely  misapplied.  The  act  requires  that,  for 
instruction  in  subjects  other  than  those  specified  in  the  science 
and  art  directory,  the  sanction  of  the  Department  must  be  got. 
This  sanction  had  rarel\'  if  e\cr  been  applied  for.     A  large  part 


326  FOURTH    PERIOD.      SECONDARY   SCHOOLS  [CH. 

of  the  funds  had  been  expended  for  purposes  which  had  Httle  if 
any  connection  with  science  or  art,  and  on  elementary  instruction 
for  which  sufficient  provision  was  made  by  local  rates  and 
parliamentary  grants.  The  extended  representation  was  entirely 
salutary.  Except  where  the  town  and  county  councils  entrusted 
the  administration  to  the  secondary  committees,  science  and  art 
have  got  little  help  from  the  Residue  grant. 

As  to  the  distribution  of  the  i^6o,ooo  set  apart  for  secondary 
education  by  the  Education  and  Local  Taxation  Account 
(Scotland)  Act  of  1 892  a  fairly  typical  example  may  be  given.  For 
the  year  ended  March  31st,  1900,  ^^4700  was  expended  on  the 
inspection  of  higher  class  public  schools,  and  on  the  cost  of 
holding  the  Leaving  certificate  examination.  Of  the  remaining 
;^5 5,300  about  ^35,000  was  paid  in  direct  subsidies  in  nearly 
equal  amounts  to  higher  class  schools  and  secondary  depart- 
ments of  state-aided  schools,  the  greater  part  of  the  remainder 
being  allocated  for  capitation  grants  and  bursaries. 

Sir  Henry  Craik  in  his  report  for  1899  refers  to  the  further 
funds  placed  at  the  disposal  of  the  Department  by  the  Local 
Taxation  Account  (Scotland)  Act  of  1898  for  the  benefit  of 
higher  class  schools.  He  thinks  these  schools  are  the  proper 
recipients  of  such  aid,  especially  as  the  claims  of  scientific 
teaching  are  rapidly  advancing,  and  the  supply  of  adequate 
apparatus  and  properly  qualified  teachers  can  hardly  be  met  by 
unaided  local  efforts  This  help  is  the  more  welcome  because 
the  transference  of  science  and  art  administration  to  the  Scotch 
Education  Department  has  led  to  an  important  development 
of  the  Leaving  certificate  examination  by  including  in  it  some 
science  subjects. 

At  this  time  the  administration  of  the  grants  for  science 
and  art  was  sadly  wanting  in  organisation.  The  subjects  were 
taught  in  a  desultory  way,  much  like  specific  subjects,  and 
without  definite  aim,  except  that  of  earning  grants.  It  was 
necessary  to  distinguish  between  science  and  art  subjects  as 
parts  of  a  regular  curriculum,  and  isolated  subjects  in  which  lads 
who  had  left  school  were  interested  or  which  they  hoped  to  find 
useful.    For  the  former  the  day  school,  for  the  latter  the  evening 

^  Report  on  Secondary  Eilucation,  18^9,  p.  2 59. 


XXV]  ENCOURAHEMKNT   OK   SCIKNCE   AND   ART  327 

continuation  school  was  the  proijcr  place.  It  was  also  thoufrht 
that  science  teaching  should  include  experimental  investigation 
of  fundamental  principles  in  the  laboratory,  and  practical 
applications  of  them.     Later  on,  effect  was  given  to  this  system. 

In  the  distribution  of  the  further  funds  above  mentioned  a 
small  fixed  sum  was  by  the  minute  of  April  27,  1899,  awarded  to 
the  schools  approved  as  recipients.  This  sum  was  increased 
according  to  the  number  of  [)upils  over  12  years  of  age  in 
average  attendance  and  to  the  proportion  which  the  expenditure 
on  higher  class  schools  from  the  rates  bore  to  the  total  valuation 
of  the  district.  In  [901  the  maximum  and  minimum  grants  for 
each  school  were  fixed  at  £7SO  and  ^300,  and  were  to  be 
devoted  to  improvement  of  staff  and  equipment,  and  were 
exclusively  for  the  benefit  of  higher  class  schools,  secondary'  or 
technical,  that  were  not  in  receipt  of  grants  under  the  Scotch 
code^  While  liberty  of  suggestion  is  given  to  school  managers, 
the  department  must  be  satisfied  that  the  money  shall  be 
expended  in  such  a  way  as  to  increase  the  efficiency  of  the 
school.  Among  other  permissible  objects  of  expenditure  is  the 
payment  of  the  expenses  of  teachers  going  to  France  or  Germany 
with  a  view  to  more  thorough  knowledge  of  these  languages. 
By  another  clause  of  the  minute  any  residue  is  put  aside  for  the 
establishment  of  a  central  fund  from  which  new,  or  the  extension 
of  existing,  buildings  may  be  supplied.  Between  1901  and  1904 
about  .;^i9,cxx)  was  expended  from  this  fund  on  technical 
institutions  in  Edinburgh,  Glasgow,  and   Lcith. 

Under  a  minute  of  May  30,  1903,  further  funds  for  the 
encouragement  of  the  teaching  of  science  and  art  were  furnished 
to  the  amount  of  nearly  i,"  14,000.  There  has  been  on  the  whole 
gratifying  progress  in  science  teaching,  A  health}-  impulse  has 
been  given  to  it  in  schools  by  the  acceptance  of  science  in  lieu 
of  dynamics  in  the  universit)'  preliminar)'  examination. 

Up  to  1901  there  had  been  two  sets  of  technical  classes — one 
under  the  provisions  of  the  code  for  evening  schools,  the  other 
under  the  provisions  of  the  science  and  art  director)-.  These 
classes  were  conducted  on  a  plan  which  did  not  sufficiently 
differentiate    the    work    done    in    the    two    classes,    and    which 

^   Keport  on  SecottJary  Education,  lyoi,  p.  285. 


328  FOURTH    PERIOD.      SECONDARY   SCHOOLS  [CH. 

involved  risk  of  duplication  of  grants.  To  remedy  this  a 
uniform  set  of  regulations  was  drawn  up  in  the  continuation 
class  code,  taking  cognisance  of  all  forms  of  technical  instruction 
from  the  elementary  to  the  higher  work  in  selected  central 
institutions,  which  may  be  called  industrial  universities.  The 
conditions  on  which  these  grants  are  paid  in  respect  of  premises, 
equipment,  time-tables,  regulation  of  classes,  and  qualification  of 
teachers  give  ample  security  against  duplication  of  grants  and 
for  sound  scientific  instruction. 

In  1906  there  were  ten  central  institutions,  viz. : 

I.  Aberdeen  and  North    of  Scotland    College   of  Agri- 

culture. 

II.  Aberdeen    Gordon's    College    and    Gray's    School    of 

Art. 

III.  Dundee  Technical  Institute. 

IV.  Edinburgh    and   East   of  Scotland    College   of  Agri- 

culture. 

V.  Edinburgh  Heriot-Watt  College. 

VI.  Glasgow  and  West  of  Scotland  Technical  College. 

VII.  Glasgow  Athenaeum  Commercial  College. 

VIII.  Glasgow  School  of  Art. 

IX.     Leith  Nautical  College. 

X.      The  West  of  Scotland  Agricultural  College  (including 
Kilmarnock  Dairy  School). 

To  these  must  now  be  added  the  recently-erected  Edinburgh 
College  of  Art. 


XXV]     TKCIINICAL    EDUCATION    AND    EVENINfJ   SCHOOLS        329 

CONTINUATION    CLASSES. 

Prior  to  the  passing  of  the  Education  (Scotland)  Act  of  1872 
there  were  comparatively  few  evening  schools  in  Scotland. 
Their  existence,  as  a  rule,  was  very  intermittent,  and  the 
instruction  they  gave  of  a  very  elementary  nature.  In  session 
1873-4 — the  transition  year  from  the  regime  of  the  churches  to 
that  of  the  school-boards — only  3209  pupils  were  presented  for 
examination  in  all  the  evening  schools  of  Scotland.  It  will 
scarcely  be  credited  that  of  these  11 34  were  presented  in 
Standard  I,  the  meagre  requirements  of  which  270  failed  to 
pass.     Only  63  were  presented  in  Standard  VI. 

As  soon  as  the  school-boards  got  into  working  order  progress 
began  to  be  made:  but  it  was  not  until  session  1886-7  that 
scholars  in  evening  schools  ceased  to  be  presented  in  Standards  I 
and  II.  In  that  year  6885  evening  scholars  were  examined; 
2063  being  in  Standard  VI,  exactly  2000  more  than  in  1873-4. 
Shortly  thereafter  specific  subjects  were  included  in  the  evening 
school  curriculum,  and  in  1893  evening  schools  under  the 
fostering  care  of  the  Department  came  to  have  a  code  of  their 
own,  and  to  be  known  as  continuation  classes. 

A  great  development  took  place.  In  1897-8  over  95,000 
pupils  were  enrolled,  but  the  average  attendance  scarcely  reached 
52,000.  The  number  enrolled  in  1906-7  was  over  100,000,  which 
is  very  satisfactory  when  it  is  remembered  that  in  the  intervening 
year  the  limit  for  compulsory  attendance  at  school  had  been 
raised  from   13  to   14  years  of  age. 

Four  divisions  in  continuation  classes  are  recognised  by  the 
department. 

Division  I  consists  of  pupils  no  longer  compelled  to  attend 
school,  who  wish  to  complete  their  general  elementary  education. 

Division  II  is  open  to  pupils  over  16,  or  to  pupils  under 
16  who  give  satisfactory  evidence  of  their  fitness  to  profit  by 
specialized  elementary  instruction  in  one  or  more  of  a  large 
number  of  subjects  such  as  English,  languages,  mathematics, 
scientific  and  commercial  subjects,  cookery  and  laundr)-  work. 

Division  III  includes  classes  for  advanced  specialised  in- 
struction, which  ma>'  take  the  form  of  commercial  and  literary 


330  FOURTH   PERIOD.      SECONDARY  SCHOOLS  [CH. 

courses,  or  of  instruction  in  any  crafts,  industries,  and  occupations, 
as  art  and  art  crafts,  engineering,  naval  architecture,  navigation, 
textile  and  chemical  industries,  women's  industries,  agriculture 
and  rural  industries,  and  many  others. 

Division  IV  seems  more  recreative  than  educational.  Under 
it  are  included  physical  exercises,  military  drill,  wood-carving, 
vocal  music,  and  fancy  needlework. 

Continuation  classes  need  not  meet  in  the  evening,  when 
drowsy  pupils  are  least  able  to  profit  by  instruction,  and  weary 
teachers  least  able  to  give  it.  They  may  be  held  at  any  hour  of 
the  day,  and  are  open  to  all  pupils  who  have  left  school,  there 
being  no  upward  limit  of  age.  The  best  work  is  done  in 
Divisions  II  and  III,  in  which  also  there  is  by  far  the  largest 
attendance. 

It  is  to  be  regretted  that  there  are  hardly  any  continuation 
classes  in  purely  agricultural  districts,  and  that  all  over  the 
country  the  percentage  of  pupils  from  14  to  16  years  of  age 
attending  such  classes  is  very  small.  It  must  be  borne  in 
mind  that  distances  from  school  are  often  great,  and  that 
farming  work  is  hard  and  not  favourable  to  continuation 
school  work.  On  the  other  hand  it  is  matter  for  congratula- 
tion that  substantial  progress  has  been  achieved,  that  under 
the  Education  (Scotland)  Act,  1908,  school-boards  have  new 
powers  to  enforce  attendance,  that  an.  effort  is  being  made 
to  have  the  pupils  trained  in  a  well  balanced  curriculum 
instead  of  taking  single  subjects,  and  that  by  a  system  of 
bursaries  the  department  is  aiming  at  linking  on  continuation 
classes  to  the  great  central  institutions  to  which  reference  has 
been  already  made,  and  which,  in  the  (ii?)rm  of  agricultural, 
technical,  art  or  commercial  colleges,  are  to  be  found  in 
Edinburgh,  Glasgow,  Dundee,  Aberdeen,  Govan,  and  other 
large  centres  throughout  the  country.  The  interest  that  some 
employers  are  taking  in  the  attendance  of  their  apprentices 
at  continuation  classes,  is  a  valuable  example  which  it  may  be 
anticipated  will  be  widely  copied.  Were  this  interest  general, 
youths  of  14  to  17  would  attend  continuation  classes  as  naturally 
as  those  under  14  attend  a  day  school,  and  the  more  capable  or 
the   more  eager   would    take   full   advantage  of  the   splendidly 


XXV]  IMPROVED   EDUCATION    AND   OVER-PRESSURE  331 

equipped  central  institutions  established  or  being  established  in 
our  land. 

In  the  report  for  1904  attention  is  directed  to  the  serious 
danger  of  over-pressure  which  is  steadily  increasing.  It  is 
impossible  to  condemn  too  strongly  the  over-pressure  which 
must  result  from  spending  five  or  six  hours  in  the  preparation  of 
home-lessons.  The  strain  implied  in  this  is  much  beyond  what 
the  average  boy  or  girl  can  stand.  If,  which  is  probable,  keen 
competition  for  university  bursaries  is  the  cause,  it  is  difficult  to 
suggest  a  remedy  except  in  the  cominon-sense  of  parents  and 
teachers.  Bursaries  gained  on  these  terms  cost  far  too  much. 
It  is  probably  in  connection  with  bursaries  that  over-pressure  is 
caused.  The  ambitious  boy  must  get  the  bursary,  and  to  get 
it  he  must  work  for  it.  A  comparison  of  the  Leaving  certifi- 
cate examination  papers  of  a  dozen  years  ago  with  those  of 
to-day  shows  an  almost  astounding  increase  of  difficult)-.  The 
Department  have  recognised  this  and  endeavoured  to  prevent 
over-pressure  by  fixing  15  and  17  as  the  ages  for  the 
intermediate  and  leaving  certificates  respectively,  with  which 
it  is  impossible  to  find  fault.  The  increased  difficulty  has 
reasonably  kept  pace  with  the  distinct  advance  in  education  all 
round. 

While  the  skilful  and  initiative  enterprise  of  the  Department 
are  worthy  of  the  heartiest  approval,  and  their  educational 
theories  are  sound  and  healthily  progressive,  it  is  impossible  to 
ignore  the  existence  among  teachers  and  managers  of  a  feeling 
that  their  zeal  is  in  some  respects  characterised  by  undue  haste; 
that  changes  inherently  and  unquestionably  good  are  followed 
by  others  also  good  and  probably  better,  but  separated  from  the 
former  by  intervals  .somewhat  too  .short  for  their  results  to  be 
fairly  estimated.  Whatever  room  there  may  be  for  differences 
of  opinion  as  to  this,  there  can  be  none  about  the  general 
movement  being  one  of  steady  and  striking  progres.s.  A 
comparison  of  secondary  education  now,  with  its  condition  thirt}' 
years  ago,  warrants  a  verdict  of  unanimous  approval  in  every 
direction — school  architecture,  ventilation,  furniture,  organisation, 
conversion  of  hospitals  into  fee-paying  schools,  an  increase  of 
specialist  teachers  and  inspectors,  of  Higher  Grade  Schools,  and 


332  FOURTH    PERIOD.      SECONDARY   SCHOOLS       [CH.  XXV 

greatly  improved  character  of  the  instruction.  The  traditional 
method  of  teaching  classics  has  been  largely  and  beneficially 
altered  ;  a  living  language  is  now  seldom  taught  as  a  dead 
tongue  ;  and  Mathematics  has  become  both  more  practical  and 
more  interesting.  While  Science  and  Art  arc  essential  in  the 
curriculum  of  any  school  claiming  the  grant,  the  teacher  will 
not  be  tempted  to  give  them  undue  prominence,  because  the 
grant  will  depend  on  the  whole  work  of  the  school,  and  so 
check  the  evil  of  over-pressure.  In  every  subject  there  is  earnest 
and  skilful  striving  after  the  best  methods. 

The  heartiest  recognition  must  be  accorded  to  the  fact  that, 
since  1885,  the  sound  development  of  an  excellent  scheme  has 
been  kept  steadily  in  view,  with  the  result  that  the  Department 
have  now,  thanks  partly  to  the  stimulative  influence  of  the 
Leaving  certificate,  and  largely  also  to  the  application  of  the 
Scotland  (Education)  Fund,  established  a  beneficent  regulation 
and  supervision  of  secondary  education,  such  as  Scotland  has 
never  had  till  now,  and  for  which  she  ought  to  be  and  is  grateful. 


CHAPTER    XXVI 

FOURTH    PERIOD.     UNIVERSITIES 

THK  Act  of  1872,  as  an  outstanding  feature  in  the  history  of 
education,  has  been  dealt  with  as  the  starting-point  of  our  fourth 
school  period  from  that  date  to  the  present  time.  The  Act  of 
1858,  as  conspicuous  for  its  influence  on  university,  as  that  of 
1872  on  school  life,  has  been  chosen  as  the  commencement  of 
our  fourth  university  period. 

There  are  two  great  landmarks  in  the  history  of  the 
Scottish  universities,  the  remodelling  which  they  underwent  in 
1858  and  again  in  1889.  Before  1858  in  all  the  universities, 
except  Edinburgh,  the  administration  was  in  the  hands  of  the 
Senatus  Academicus.  In  Edinburgh  it  was  largely  in  the  hands 
of  the  municipality.  The  commissioners  of  1858  were  instructed 
to  have  special  regard  to  the  several  reports  which  followed  the 
visits  of  the  commissions  between  1826  and  1857.  These 
instructions  were  faithfully  carried  out,  and  resulted  in  the 
excellent  Act  of  1858,  which  may  be  said  to  have  nationalised 
the  Scottish  universities.  The  ordinances  passed  under  it 
practically  regulated  the  action  of  them  all  for  more  than  thirty 
years. 

By  the  Act  of  1858  larger  powers  were  given  to  the  Senatus, 
and  the  University  Court  and  General  Council  were  instituted. 
Henceforth  in  Glasgow  and  Aberdeen  the  Rector  was  as  hitherto 
elected  by  the  matriculated  students  divided  into  four  '  nations,' 
but  in  Edinburgh  and  St  Andrews  in  such  manner  as  the 
commissioners  might  determine.  The  functions  of  the  faculty 
were   divided   between   the    Senate   and    the    University   Court. 


334  FOURTH    PERIOD.      UNIVERSITIES  [CH. 

To  this  Court,  consisting  of  the  Rector,  Principal  (and  in  Edin- 
burgh the  Lord  Provost,  in  Glasgow  the  Dean  of  Faculties), 
and  four  assessors,  was  transferred  the  appointment  of  professors. 
It  is  more  correct  to  say  that  the  Crown's  patronage  was 
retained,  and  that  the  Town's  went  to  the  Curators.  The  Court 
had  charge  of  the  revenue  and  pecuniary  concerns  generally, 
the  regulation  of  fees,  and  internal  arrangements.  The  General 
Council  consisted  of  the  Chancellor,  University  Court,  the  pro- 
fessors, graduates  and  others  who  had  attended  four  sessions'. 
It  met  twice  a  year  and  made  representations  to  the  Court  on 
any  questions  affecting  the  w^elfare  of  the  university.  By  the 
Ordinance  of  1858  bursaries  were  revised,  new  professorships 
were  founded,  and  provision  was  made  for  assistants  to  pro- 
fessors and  examiners  for  degrees.  The  order  in  which  classes 
were  to  be  taken  was  left  to  the  student's  choice,  and  the  subjects 
of  examination  for  degrees  were  arranged  in  three  departments 
in  Glasgow  and  Edinburgh,  but  in  St  Andrews  and  Aberdeen 
there  were  four  departments,  chemistry  being  compulsory  in 
the  former,  natural  history  in  the  latter.  The  subjects  might 
be  taken  in  any  order,  the  result  of  which  was  a  large  increase 
in  graduation  and  in  the  number  of  students. 

This  concession  to  individual  tastes  and  requirements,  while 
necessary  and  in  some  respects  desirable,  was  by  many  thought 
to  be  not  an  unmixed  good,  inasmuch  as  it  affected  injuriously 
the  unbroken  social  intercourse  that  formerly  existed  among 
young  men  engaged  in  common  pursuits  and  studies  during 
their  residence  at  the  university  I  The  experience  of  thirty 
years  and  the  investigation  of  the  commission  of  1876  brought 
to  light  a  number  of  facts  clearly  suggesting  the  expediency 
of  further  legislation. 

One  of  the  aims  of  the  Act  of  1858  was  increa.se  of  graduation, 
and  giving  to  graduates,  through  their  General  Councils,  an 
interest,  and,  to  that  extent,  a  share  in  university  administration. 
Through  the    institution    of   University   Courts,  the  somewhat 

'  As  graduation  had  (except  in  Aberdeen)  gone  much  out  of  fashion,  registration 
in  the  General  Council  was  granted  to  all  who  had,  prior  to  1861,  completed  four 
sessions,  at  least  two  of  them  being  in  the  Faculty  of  Arts. 

2  University  of  Glasgcnv  Old  and  New,  .\xv — xxvii. 


XXVI]        REORGANISATION    UNDER   THK   ACT   OF    1858  335 

close  professorial  atniosplicrc  was  frcshenetl  and  vitalised  by  a 
wholesome  current  of  ventilation  from  without.  Other  aims 
were  increase  of  professors'  emoluments  and  the  appointment  of 
assistants  and  additional  professors.  On  this  subject  the 
municipal  origin  of  the  University  of  lulinburgh  necessitated 
exceptional  treatment.  The  appointment  to  professorships, 
which  uj)  to  this  time  had  been  in  the  hands  of  the  Town 
Council,  was  now  to  be  transferred  to  the  University  Court.  In 
this  matter  the  Town  Council  had  u.sed  their  power  on  the  whole 
well,  and  naturally  objected  to  its  being  taken  from  them.  lUit 
in  view  of  the  squabbling  between  the  municipality  and  the 
Senatus  which,  with  faults  on  both  sides,  had  characterised  a 
considerable  part  of  the  i8th  and  19th  centuries,  and  which 
sectarian  feeling,  aroused  by  the  ecclesiastical  disruption  of  1843, 
would  tend  to  foster  while  interfering  with  wholesome  administra- 
tion, a  moderate  check  on  the  autocracy  of  the  Town  Council 
was  thought  desirable.  A  compromise  was  accordingly  adopted 
which  assigned  the  patronage  of  the  university  to  seven  curators, 
four  of  whom  were  to  be  nominated  by  the  Town  Council,  and 
three  by  the  University  Court. 

It  was  certainly  better  that  the  influence  of  the  Town 
Council  in  making  appointments  to  chairs  should  be  exercised 
in  this  way  than  by  compelling  candidates  to  canvass  thirty 
representatives  of  city  wards.  It  was  further  ordained  that  the 
Rector  was  to  be  elected  by  the  students,  and  the  Chancellor  by 
the  graduates  or  General  Council.  In  the  House  of  Commons  a 
permissive  clause  was  proposed  by  Mr  Gladstone  that  the  four 
universities  should  take  the  form  of  'colleges'  of  a  central 
university,  which  should  conduct  examinations  for  all  Scotland 
in  a  way  somewhat  akin  to  the  London  University.  Some 
approved  of  this  as  tending  to  secure  uniformity  of  attainment 
and  stimulate  effort  on  the  part  of  both  professor  and  student. 
The  House  of  Lords  thought  it  an  innovation  undesirable  on  the 
ground  of  sentiment  and  tradition.  As  it  was  only  permissive  it 
was  allowed  to  remain  part  of  the  act. 

A  powerful  executive  commission  was  appointed  to  carry  out 
the  purposes  of  the  act.  It  was  entrusted  with  large  powers 
which,   injudiciously   used,    might    have   worked    ruin,    but   the 


336  FOURTH    PERIOD.      UNIVERSITIES  [CH. 

interests  of  the  universities  were  safe  in  the  hands  of  such  men 
as  the  Duke  of  Argyll,  Earls  Stanhope  and  Mansfield,  Lord 
President  McNeill,  Stirling  of  Keir,  Lord  Moncrieff,  and,  most 
important  of  all,  the  sagacious  and  energetic  Lord  Justice  Clerk 
Inglis  as  chairman \  A  proposal  that  principalships  should  not 
be  confined  to  ministers  of  the  Established  Church  was  carried. 
Of  this  change  Sir  David  Brewster  as  Principal  of  Edinburgh  was 
the  first  fruit.  In  due  course  they  proceeded  to  frame  regulations 
for  graduation  in  medicine  and  arts,  arranging  for  three  classes 
of  medical  degrees — Bachelor  of  Medicine  (M.B.),  Master  in 
Surgery  (CM.),  and  Doctor  of  Medicine  (M.D.).  For  the  two 
lower  degrees  compliance  with  Ordinance  5,  which  was  merely 
supplementary  to  the  arrangements  adopted  in  1833,  was  neces- 
sary. For  M.D.  the  requirements  were  a  lapse  of  two  years 
after  the  lower  pass,  age  not  less  than  twenty-four,  and  proof  of 
satisfactory  attainments  in  the  Faculty  of  Arts.  The  medical 
faculties  in  their  jealousy  of  extra-mural  teaching  made  a 
protest  against  Ordinance  8  which  sanctioned  it,  but  without 
effect,  and  both  ordinances  were  confirmed  in  1861.  In  1866  the 
production  of  a  thesis  on  some  medical  subject  was  added,  as 
necessary  for  the  degree  of  M.D.  Under  these  regulations,  the 
number  of  students  and  graduates  in  medicine  rapidly  increased 
till  1890,  when  it  fell  off  for  about  ten  years  and  again  increased. 
In  the  Faculty  of  Arts  the  Commission  of  1858  did  not  adopt 
the  recommendation  of  the  Royal  Commission  of  1826-30  as 
to  an  entrance  examination,  but  they  instituted  a  voluntary 
examination  for  a  three  years'  course,  and  an  examination 
testing  fitness  for  promotion  from  a  junior  to  a  senior  class. 
They  abolished  the  system  of  B.A.  and  M.A.  of  1826,  and  also 
the  B.A.  instituted  by  the  Senatus  Academicus  in  1842,  which 
was  simply  M.A.  with  the  omission  of  some  subjects.  Instead 
of  this  they  established  only  one  M.A.  degree  which  could  be 
taken  in  three  stages. 

This  was  adopted  to  encourage  graduation  and  enlarge  the 
General  Council.     It  had  this  effect,  and  infused  a  general  spirit 

'  "  They  acted  with  the  greatest  wisdom  and  sagacity,  and  produced  a  system  under 
which  the  universities,  and  especially  the  University  of  Edinburgh  sjirang  into  new 
life  and  development."     Grant's  Story  of  Edinburgh  University,  u,  p.  loo. 


XXVI]  TIIK   FACULTIES   OF   MEDICINE   AND   ARTS  33/ 

of  work  into  the  various  classes.  The  subjects  covered  by  the 
Arts  course  were  Latin,  Greek,  mathematics,  natural  philosophy, 
logic,  moral  philosophy  and  rhetoric.  For  the  ordinary  M.A. 
degree  examination  in  these  seven  subjects  was  necessary. 

Honours  might  be  taken  in  each  of  the  following  departments: 
(i)  classical  literature;  (2)  mental  philosophy,  including  logic, 
metaphysics,  and  moral  philosophy;  (3)  mathematics,  including 
pure  mathematics  and  natural  philosophy,  and  (4)  natural  science, 
including  geology,  zoology  and  chemistry.  In  each  of  the  first 
three  of  these  departments,  there  were  two  grades  of  honour,  but 
in  natural  science  only  one'. 

While  attendance  at  the  classes  of  these  seven  subjects  was 
necessary  for  degree,  it  is  scarcely  doubtful  that  the  pitch  of  the 
examination  was  not  high,  but  considerably  higher  than  that  of 
Cambridge  or  Oxford  even  now.  The  scarcity,  and  compara- 
tively isolated  position  of  secondary  schools  in  our  educational 
system,  in  many  parts  of  the  country,  was  incompatible  with  a 
highly  pitched  graduation  scheme.  The  aim  of  the  commis- 
sioners to  increase  graduation  was  entirely  laudable.  They 
wished  to  promote  general  culture,  and  arouse  academic  ambition 
in  the  only  way  then  possible.  It  was  in  the  interest  of  general 
culture  that  the  degree  of  M.A.  conferring  membership  of  the 
General  Council  and  consequently  a  share  in  the  business  of  the 
university,  should  be  held  out,  as  a  possible  result  of  four  years' 
diligence  and  average  ability,  to  a  lad  whose  education  in  a  rural 
school  was  of  a  comparatively  humble  type.  That  it  was 
successful  is  beyond  question.  For  a  considerable  time  not 
more  than  half  the  students  took  part  in  the  class  examination. 
Not  long  after,  eighty  per  cent.  did.  There  was  a  gradual 
raising  of  test  and  a  strict  examination  in  all  the  subjects  was 
rigidly  enforced. 

Between  1863  and  the  commissioners'  report  in  1878  no 
new  professorships  or  lectureships  had  been  founded  in  the 
University  of  Aberdeen.  In  St  Andrews  a  professorship  of  the 
Theory,  Histor}',  and  Practice  of  Education  was  instituted  in 
1876  on  an  endowment  provided  for  under  the  will  of  the  Rev. 
Dr  Andrew   Bell  of  Egmorc,   founder  of  the   Madras   system 

'  In  St  Andrews  and  Aberdeen  Science  was  an  eighth  compulsory  subject. 
K.  E.  22 


338  FOURTH    PERIOD.      UNIVERSITIES  [CH. 

of  education.  In  Glasgow  two  professorships,  one  of  clinical 
surgery  and  another  of  clinical  medicine,  were  instituted  by 
the  Senatus  Academicus,  with  the  approval  of  the  University 
Court.  An  endowment  of  ^2500  was  provided  from  private 
sources  for  each  chair,  and  the  patronage  was  vested  in 
the  University  Court.  The  incumbents  of  these  chairs  were 
allowed  to  practise  as  a  supplement  to  the  endowment,  which  at 
4  per  cent,  would  produce  only  iJ"ioo.  The  respective  rights, 
with  regard  to  graduation,  of  the  two  clinical  professors  on  the 
one  hand,  and  of  their  medical  colleagues  on  the  other,  especially 
the  professors  of  practice  of  medicine  and  systematic  surgery, 
w^ere  subjects  of  keen  controversy,  for  the  settlement  of  which 
the  commissioners  thought  they  had  no  authority,  and  that  it 
was  more  suitably  left  in  the  hands  of  the  ITniversity  Court. 

Between  1863  and  1876  four  new  professorships  were  founded 
in  the  University  of  Edinburgh  by  the  Senatus  Academicus, — 
that  of  engineering  in  1868,  that  of  geology  and  mineralogy  in 
1 87 1,  that  of  commercial  and  political  economy  and  mercantile 
law  in  1 87 1,  that  of  theory,  history,  and  practice  of  education  in 
1876^ 

The  Senatus  Academicus  with  these  additions  was  in  1876 
the  following. 

In  St  Andrews,  2  Principals  and  13  Professors,  in  all  15. 
In  Glasgow,  i  Principal  and  27  Professors,  in  all  28. 
In  Aberdeen,  i  Principal  and  21  Professors,  in  all  22. 
In  Edinburgh,  i  Principal  and  36  Professors,  in  all  37. 

After  discussing  the  general  propriety  and  expediency  of  the 
establishment  of  new  chairs,  the  commissioners  urge  caution  in 
accepting  offers  of  endowments  for  new  professorships.  "  Some 
of  these  may  be  highly  beneficial,  while  others  may  be  of  doubt- 
ful expediency  ;  and,  to  ensure  that  no  chair  shall  be  founded 
without  a  full  and  unprejudiced  consideration  of  the  probable 
consequences  of  its  institution,  and  of  the  conditions  under 
which  its  institution,  if  resolved  on,  should  be  sanctioned,  we 
think    that   some  check   on   the   power   of  the    universities   to 

'  Report  of  Cotnmissioners  of  i^lb,  ^^.  51 — 3. 


XXVl]        ATTITUDE   OF   THE  COMMISSIONERS   OF    1876  339 

establish  new  chairs  should  be  provided  by  legislation'."  They 
add  however  that  the  same  objections  do  not  apply  to  lecture- 
ships, which  are  not  necessarily  of  a  permanent  nature,  and  may 
be  discontinued  if  found  to  be  unnecessary  or  unsuccessful. 

In  the  evidence  given  before  the  commissioners  in  1876  there 
was  great  variety  of  opinion  about  the  discontinuance  of  junior 
classes,  in  which  the  work  done  was  more  suitable  for  school 
than  university.  The  preponderance  of  evidence  was  against  the 
discontinuance,  which  was  also  the  opinion  of  the  commissioners 
themselves.  They  accordingly  advised  their  continuance,  on  the 
ground  that,  in  many  parts  of  Scotland,  the  supply  of  such 
secondary  education  as  would  qualify  for  entrance  into  a  senior 
class  is  not  to  be  had,  and  that  university  education  would  be 
denied  to  many  who  might  be  able  to  turn  it  to  good  account. 
They  thought  that  any  rule  which  would  shut  the  gates  of  the 
university  against  a  student  who  failed  to  pass  a  certain  exami- 
nation would,  in  the  circumstances  of  Scotland,  be  injurious  to 
the  education  of  the  country  ;  that  university  attendance  was 
unusually  large  in  proportion  to  the  population  ;  that  educational 
conditions  were  very  various,  and  not  less  various  the  objects 
with  which,  and  the  ages  at  which,  students  came  to  the 
university  ;  that  many  of  the  backward  students  were  beyond 
school  age,  and  could  not  be  expected  to  return  to  school ; 
and,  above  all,  that  national  life  and  character  had  been  for 
centuries  most  beneficially  influenced  by  the  universities  being 
accessible  to  all,  even  the  poorest.  With  these  views  the 
commissioners  of  1889  agreed,  adding,  however,  that  while  it 
would  be  hard  at  present  to  discontinue  junior  classes  in  the 
interest  of  the  backward  students,  they  thought  it  undesirable 
that  they  should  be  permanent.  They  are  now  discontinued, 
but  there  are  tutorial  classes  for  students  preparing  to  pass  the 
preliminary  examination. 

On  the  kindred  question  as  to  enforcing  a  preliminary 
examination  as  a  condition  of  entrance  the  commissioners  in 
1876  took  the  same  sound  view.  In  this  they  were  followed  by 
the  commissioners  of  1889  who  held  that  the  "first  and  indis- 
pensable condition  for  the  erection  of  a  barrier  at  the  gates  of 

^  Rcpcrrt  of  Commissioners  ^1876,  p.  67. 

*  22  —  2 


340  FOURTH    PERIOD.      UNIVERSITIES  [CII. 

the  university  is  that  candidates  for  admission  should  have 
sufficient  means  and  opportunity  for  preparing  themselves  for 
the  university  at  schools" 

In  1892  in  consequence  of  representations  made  to  the 
commissioners  a  preliminary  examination  was  for  the  first  time 
instituted,  in  order  (i)  to  maintain  the  distinction  between  school 
and  university  education,  and  (2)  at  the  same  time  avoid  possible 
injustice  to  candidates  whose  opportunities  of  getting  advanced 
education  were  unsatisfactory.  The  subjects  of  examination  were 
English,  Latin  or  Greek,  mathematics,  and  one  of  the  following, 
French,  German,  Italian,  dynamics.  As  many  candidates  come 
from  elementary  schools  which  could  prepare  students  to  pass 
in  two,  but  not  in  the  whole  four  subjects  of  the  preliminary 
examination,  the  commissioners  ordained  that  "  any  student,  who 
had  passed  in  Latin,  Greek,  or  mathematics  on  the  higher 
standard,  may  attend  a  qualifying  class  in  such  subject  or  subjects 
without  having  passed  in  the  other  subjects  ;  but  no  candidate 
can  present  himself  for  examination  in  any  subject  qualifying 
for  graduation,  till  he  has  passed  the  whole  preliminary  exami- 
nation, nor  can  he  be  admitted  to  a  degree  in  Arts,  unless  he  has 
attended  qualifying  classes  for  three  years  after  completing  the 
preliminary  examination^." 

By  this  arrangement  students  were  permitted  to  attend  the 
classes  for  which  they  had  proved  their  fitness.  They  could 
thereafter,  either  privately  or  in  the  summer  vacation,  prepare  to 
pass  in  the  other  subjects,  instead  of  giving  up  the  university 
altogether.  But  for  this  modification  of  the  original  Ordinance 
students  of  possibly  great  ability,  though  weak  in  classics  and 
mathematics,  would,  mainly  owing  to  their  distance  from  good 
schools,  have  been  denied  the  opportunity  of  reaching,  as  many 
such  have  done,  high  academic  distinction.  A  middle  course 
between  laxity  and  severity  was  chosen,  a  good  deal  being  left 
to  judicious  action  on  the  part  of  the  University  Court,  the 
Scnatus,  and  the  examiners.  Consideration  was  thus  given  to 
the  unsatisfactory  condition  of  secondary  education  in  schools, 
while  at  the  same  time  the  standard  of  the  preliminary  exami- 

■*  Report  of  Conimissiouers  ci/1889,  p.  x. 
^  Ordinance  44,  Section  iv. 


XXVl]         AN    ENTRANCE   EXAMINATION    ESTABLISHED  34I 

nation  was  not  lowered.  It  has  been  contended  with  consider- 
able cogency,  that  the  gates  of  tiic  university  should  be  open 
to  all  comers  irrespective  of  attainments,  provided,  of  course, 
that  teaching  is  not  lowered  to  suit  the  ill-prepared,  who  must 
be  content  to  pick  up  whatever  they  can.  Of  the  expediency  of 
the  policy  of  the  open  door,  Scotland's  educational  history  can 
furnish  many  notable  examples. 

The  standard  for  a  pass  in  the  preliminary  examination  was 
prescribed  by  reference  to  the  examination  for  the  three  years' 
curriculum  established  in  1858,  and  to  the  leaving  certificate  of 
the  Scotch  Education  Department.  To  secure  uniformity  in  all 
the  universities,  a  board  of  examiners  was  instituted  consisting 
of  professors,  lecturers  on  subjects  qualifying  for  graduation,  and 
additional  examiners  appointed  by  the  University  Courts. 

After  passing  this  examination,  the  curriculum  extended 
over  not  less  than  three  winter  sessions,  or  two  winter  and  three 
summer  sessions,  a  winter  session  including  not  less  than  twenty, 
and  a  summer  session  not  less  than  ten  teaching  weeks.  While 
the  traditional  number  of  seven  subjects  was  unchanged,  it  was 
felt  that  the  course  of  study  covered  by  them  was  wanting  in 
pliancy  and  adaptation  to  individual  taste  or  bent  of  mind,  and 
a  great  variety  of  options  was  consequently  introduced. 

While  the  course  was  thus  widened  and  liberalised,  care  was 
taken  that  the  humanistic  culture  characteristic  of  an  Arts 
degree  was  preserved,  as  will  be  seen  below  from  the  specifica- 
tion of  imperative  and  optional  subjects.  This  widening  of  the 
curriculum  was  thought  to  have  a  useful  bearing  on  the  relation 
of  the  Faculty  of  Arts  to  the  Faculty  of  Medicine,  inasmuch  as 
some  of  these  science  subjects  might  be  taken  during  the  Arts 
course,  and  so  shorten  the  medical  course  by  a  year,  and  that  its 
tendency  would  be  in  the  direction  of  enlarged  liberal  education 
for  the  medical  student.  In  Aberdeen,  where  natural  history  was 
compulsory,  a  medical  student  saved  a  year  by  taking  chemistry 
in  his  fourth  year  in  Arts. 

Candidates  for  the  ordinary  M.A.  degree  might  follow  the 
curriculum,  and  graduate  in  the  subjects  hitherto  recognised  for 
graduation  according  to  the  regulations  laid  down  in  Ordinances 
12,   14,   18  and  69  of  the  Act  of  1858,  or  they  might  vary  the 


342  FOURTH    PERIOD.      UNIVERSITIES  [CH. 

curriculum  in  the  following  way.  They  must  attend  full  courses 
and  pass  in  seven  subjects  four  of  which  must  be  (a)  Latin  or 
Greek  ;  (d)  English  or  a  Modern  Language  (French,  German, 
Italian,  Spanish)  or  History;  (c)  Logic  and  Metaphysics,  or 
Moral  Philosophy ;  (d)  Mathematics  or  Natural  Philosophy.  The 
remaining  three  subjects  might  be  chosen  from  the  following 
departments,  subject  to  the  condition  that  the  group  of  seven 
subjects  must  include  either  (a)  both  Latin  and  Greek,  or  (/?)  both 
Logic  and  Moral  Philosophy,  or  (c)  any  Itvo  of  Mathematics, 
Natural  Philosophy  and  Chemistry. 
There  were  four  departments. 

I.     Lang2iage  and  Literature. 

Latin.  Italian. 

Greek.  Sanskrit. 

English.  Hebrew. 

French.  Arabic  or  Syriac. 

German.  Celtic. 

2.     Mental  PhilosopJiy. 

Logic  and  Metaphysics.  Education  (Theory,  History 

Moral  Philosophy.  and  Art  of). 

Political  Economy.  Philosophy  of  Law. 

3.     Science. 

Mathematics.  Zoology. 

Natural  Philosophy.  Botany. 

Astronomy.  Geology. 
Chemistry. 

4.     History  and  Law. 

History.  Constitutional  Law  and  History. 

Archaeology  and  Art  Roman  Law. 

(History  of).  Public  Law. 

A  candidate  for  the  M.A.  degree  was  not  required  to  submit 
himself  to  examination  in  groups  of  subjects.     He   might   be 


XXVl]      REMODELLING   OF   THE   CURRICULUM    IN    ARTS  343 

examined  in  any  subject,  as  soon  as  he  had  completed  attendance 
on  the  corres[)onding  class.  For  the  honours  degree  in  Arts  it 
was,  up  t(j  this  time,  necessary  to  pass  in  all  the  pass  subjects, 
except  in  the  department  in  which  the  honours  examination 
was  taken.  By  the  new  Ordinance  exemption  was  allowed  from 
some  pass  subjects  in  order  that  the  candidate  might  be  free  to 
devote  his  energies  to  the  subjects  in  the  honours  group  in 
which  he  proposed  to  graduate. 

The  degree  of  M.A,  might  be  taken  with  honours  in  any  of 
the  following  groups,  provided  honours  classes  had  been 
established  in  at  least  two  subjects  in  that  group : 

(a)     Classics. 

(d)  Mental  Philosophy. 

(c)     Mathematics  and  Natural  Philosophy, 
(rt')     Semitic  Languages. 

(e)  Indian  Languages. 

(/)     English  (Language,  Literature,  and  British  History). 

(g)     Modern  Languages  and  Literature. 

(//)     History. 

(/)  Economic  Science  (i.e.  Political  Economy,  with  either 
(a)  Moral  Philosophy,  or  {I?)  History,  as  Supplementary  Honours 
subjects). 

In  each  group  there  were  three  grades  of  honours — first, 
second,  and  third  class. 

The  candidate  for  honours  must  take  up  at  least  five  subjects, 
two  of  which  must  be  selected  from  his  honours  group.  The 
five  subjects  must  include  one  from  each  of  the  departments  of 
Language  and  Literature,  Mental  Philosophy,  and  Science. 

The  commissioners  framed  Ordinances  31  and  45  instituting 
\Faculties  of  Science  (Report,  p.  xix).  These  faculties  var}-  in 
each  university  because  the  chairs  in  each  are  not  identical. 

To  enter  in  detail  into  the  matter  of  these  two  ordinances 
would  far  exceed  our  limits.  It  is  perhaps  sufficient  to  say  that 
"  The  Commissioners  ordained  that  two  degrees  in  science  may 


344  FOURTH    PERIOD.      UNIVERSITIES  [CH. 

be  conferred  by  each  of  the  Universities  of  Scotland,  viz. 
Bachelor  of  Science  ( B.Sc.)  and  Doctor  of  Science  (D.Sc).  These 
degrees  may  be  given  in  Pure  Science  and  in  Applied  Science, 
To  obtain  the  degree  of  B.Sc.  the  ordinance  prescribed  the 
passing  of  a  preliminary  examination,  attendance  on  at  least 
seven  courses  of  instruction  during  not  less  than  three  academical 
years  and  the  passing  of  two  science  examinations." 

In  the  University  of  Edinburgh  the  prescribed  subjects  are 
(1906-7): 

I.  Preliminary  Examination  : 
(i)     English. 

(2)  One  of  the  following — Latin,  Greek,  French  or  German, 

(3)  Mathematics. 

(4)  One  of  the  following — Latin,  Greek,  French  or  German 
(if  not  already  taken)  ;  Italian,  or  such  other  language  as  the 
Senatus  may  approve,  Dynamics. 

II.  First  Science  Examination  : 

(i)     Mathematics  or  Biology  (i.e.  Zoology  and  Botany). 

(2)  Natural  Philosophy. 

(3)  Chemistry. 

III.  The  Second  Science  Examination  is  on  a  higher  stan- 
dard in  any  three  or  more  of  the  following  subjects  : 

(i)  Mathematics. 

(2)  Natural  Philosophy. 

(3)  Astronomy. 

(4)  Chemistry. 

(5)  Human  Anatomy  including  Anthropology. 

(6)  Physiology  including  Histology  and  Physiological 
Chemistry. 

(7)  Geology  including  Mineralogy. 

(8)  Zoology  including  Comparative  Anatomy. 

(9)  Botany  including  Vegetable  Physiology. 


XXVI]  SCIENCE   DEGREES   OF   EDINBURGH  345 

Doctor  of  Science  (D.Sc). 

Bachelors  of  Science  of  not  less  than  five  years'  standing  may 
offer  themselves  for  the  degree  of  Doctor  of  Science  (D.Sc.)  and 
must  profess  one  of  the  branches  of  science  prescribed  for  the 
second  science  examination,  in  which  they  "  will  be  expected  to 
show  a  thorough  knowledge  "  as  well  as  to  present  a  thesis  to  be 
approved  by  the  Senatus. 

In  applied  science  the  degrees  of  B.Sc.  and  D.Sc.  are  con- 
ferred in  the  departments  of  engineering,  public  health  and 
agriculture. 

Of  the  169  ordinances  issued  by  the  Commission  of  1889  41 
are  general  and  applicable  to  all  the  four  universities.  It  will 
be  convenient  to  deal  first  with  the  most  important  of  these, 
and  leave  as  far  as  possible  those  that  have  special  reference  to 
each  university  to  be  taken  up  separately. 

New  Constitution  of  University  Coitrts. 

The  new  constitution  of  the  University  Court  marks  a  change 
of  very  great  importance.  In  1858  the  number  of  members  was  in 
St  Andrews  and  Aberdeen  6,  in  Glasgow  7,  and  in  Edinburgh  8. 
In  the  new  Courts  the  number  in  each  was  raised  to  14,  indepen- 
dently of  possible  additions  of  4  in  the  event  of  new  colleges  being 
affiliated.  This  increased  membership  was  brought  about  by  intro- 
ducing the  Provosts  of  the  four  university  towns,  and  giving  addi- 
tional assessors  to  the  Senatus  and  General  Council.  It  was  only  in 
Edinburgh  that  the  Lord  Provost  and  his  assessor  were  formerly 
members,  a  very  proper  recognition  of  the  strictly  municipal 
origin  of  the  university.  By  the  introduction  of  the  Provosts  a 
popular  element  of  great  value  in  keeping  with  the  temper  of  the 
time  was  contributed. 

Increase  in  the  membership  had  a  very  distinct  motive,  and 
was  accompanied  by  a  large  transference  of  power  and  responsi- 
bility. Formerly,  the  Court  was  little  more  than  a  Court  of 
Appeal  from  the  Senatus  Academicus,  which  had  the  administra- 
tion of  pro-perty  and  revenues,  as  well  as  discipline  and  education. 
In  some  of  the  universities  this  power  was  thought  excessive  and 


346  FOURTH    PERIOD.      UNIVERSITIES  [CH. 

almost  autocratic.  By  the  new  ordinance,  responsibility  for 
discipline  and  education  was  left  with  the  Senatus,  but  the 
business  management  of  property  was  vested  in  the  University 
Court.  There  were  also  certain  decisions  of  the  Senatus  which  it 
was  competent  for  the  Court  to  supervise  and  review.  This 
diminution  of  power  had  a  partial  compensation  for  the  Senatus 
in  increased  representation  in  the  Court,  and  a  two-third  share  in 
the  superintendence  of  libraries  and  museums. 

Another  new  and  valuable  element  was  the  Students' 
Representative  Council  which  had  come  spontaneously  into 
existence  in  1884  and  was  now  recognised  by  statute.  It  is 
elected  annually,  and  consists  of  representatives  from  the  different 
Faculties,  and  the  recognised  students'  societies.  Its  functions  are 
(i)  To  represent  the  students  in  matters  affecting  their  interests. 
(2)  To  afford  a  recognised  means  of  communication  between  the 
students  and  the  university  authorities.  (3)  To  promote  social 
life  and  academic  unity  among  the  students.  Its  constitution 
had  to  be  approved  by  the  University  Court,  and  it  was  entitled 
to  petition  the  Senatus  or  the  University  Court  about  any  matter 
within  their  respective  jurisdictions  affecting  the  interests  of  the 
students. 

Among  the  most  important  of  the  new  features  of  the  act  was 
the  provision  for  the  extension  of  universities  by  the  affiliation 
of  new  colleges,  such  as  the  University  College  of  Dundee  with 
the  University  of  St  Andrews. 

Another  feature  was  the  institution  of  the  Universities'  Com- 
mittee of  the  Privy  Council.  This  committee  was  to  consist  of  the 
Lord  President  of  the  Privy  Council,  the  Secretary  for  Scotland, 
and,  if  they  are  Privy  Councillors,  the  Lord  Justice  General,  the 
Lord  Justice  Clerk,  the  Lord  Advocate,  the  four  Chancellors,  the 
four  Lord  Rectors  of  the  universities,  one  member  of  the  Judicial 
Committee  of  the  Privy  Council,  and  such  other  members  of  the 
Privy  Council  as  the  Sovereign  may  appoint.  This  committee  may 
be  appealed  to  by  the  Sovereign  for  advice,  as  to  giving  or  with- 
holding consent  to  any  of  the  Ordinances  of  the  commissioners. 
For  the  purpose  of  this  Ordinance  any  three  or  more  are  sufficient, 
provided  one  is  a  member  of  the  Judicial  Committee  of  the  Privy 
Council,  and  one  a  Senator  of  the  College  of  Justice  in  Scotland. 


XXVI]    REORGANISATION    I5Y  THE   COMMISSION    OF    1 889        347 

In  the  entire  field  of  university  administration  the  Universities' 
Committee  was  the  supreme  tribunal.  Other  changes  of  greater 
or  less  importance  were  introduced.  Power  was  given  to  the 
General  Council  to  have  special  meetings,  in  addition  to  the  two 
statutory  meetings,  which  formerly  were  alone  permitted.  In 
universities  where  the  Rector  was  elected  by  '  nations  '  the  election 
was  settled  by  the  majority  of  votes  and  not,  as  formerly,  by  the 
casting  vote  of  the  Chancellor,  when  there  was  an  equality  of 
'  nations.'  Where  the  election  is  not  made  by  '  nations,'  as  in 
Edinburgh  and  St  Andrews,  it  is  settled  by  the  majority  of  votes. 
It  is  a  noteworthy  circumstance  in  connection  with  the  Act 
of  1889,  that  while  a  period  of  two  years  (with  power  to  extend 
if  necessary)  was  mentioned  as  probably  to  be  required  for  the 
work  of  the  commissioners,  it  was  not  till  after  251  meetings  had 
been  held  that  their  task  was  completed  in  1897,  eight  years 
after  their  first  meeting  in  1889.  The  very  extensive  powers  with 
which  they  were  invested  sufficiently  account  for  the  greatly 
extended  time.  They  had  before  them  the  whole  university 
system  to  examine  and,  if  necessary,  to  reconstruct.  They  were 
empowered  to  regulate  the  foundations,  mortifications,  gifts  and 
endowments  held  by  any  of  the  universities  ;  to  combine  or  divide 
bursaries  and  make  rules  for  exercising  the  patronage  of  them  ; 
to  transfer  to  the  University  Court  the  patronage  of  all  professor- 
ships except  those  vested  in  the  Curators  of  the  University  of 
Edinburgh.  This  extensive  charge  however  was  accompanied  by 
judicious  and  necessary  safeguards  against  hurried  legislation. 
It  is  approximately  correct  to  say  that  draft  ordinances,  by 
whomsoever  proposed,  had,  according  to  definite  arrangements  as 
to  times  and  seasons  and  order  of  procedure,  to  run  the  gaunt- 
let of  criticism  by  the  commissioners,  the  Senatus  Academicus, 
the  General  Council,  the  University  Courts  of  the  four  universities, 
and  indeed  by  any  person  affected  by  such  Ordinances,  before 
they  could  be  submitted  for  approval  by  the  Queen,  who  might 
further  ask  the  advice  of  the  Universities'  Committee,  as  the 
supreme  tribunal  in  university  proceedings.  The  Ordinances 
having  passed  this  ordeal,  and  having  been  laid  before  both 
Houses  of  Parliament,  received  the  royal  assent  and  became  law. 
The  publicity  thus  given  to  the  Ordinances,  and  the  keen  scrutiny 


348  FOURTH   PERIOD.      UNIVERSITIES  [CH. 

to  which  they  were  subjected  by  all  who,  from  different  points  of 
view,  were  interested  in  them,  might  be  expected  to  afford  strong 
presumption  of  the  general  soundness  of  the  conclusions  at  which 
the  commissioners  arrived. 

Subsequent  experience  however  has  shown  that  this  pre- 
sumption was  wrong.  It  was  at  any  rate  found  after  an 
experience  of  ten  or  twelve  years  that  though  the  Act  of 
1889  authorised  each  University  Court,  after  the  expiry  of  the 
powers  of  the  commissioners,  to  make  ordinances  affecting  its 
own  university,  all  such  Ordinances  required,  before  being  sub- 
mitted for  royal  approval,  to  be  communicated  to  the  Courts  of 
the  other  three  universities,  any  one  of  which  had  the  power  of 
making  adverse  representations  to  the  Privy  Council.  The  result 
was  that  no  Ordinance  could  be  passed  without  serious  difficulty 
and  delay  unless  all  the  universities  were  agreed.  After  much 
inter-academic  negotiation,  a  simple  method  has  in  1908  been 
devised  of  remedying  this  unsatisfactory  state  of  affairs,  and  of 
securing  '  autonomy '  all  round.  An  Ordinance  is  obtained  by 
one  university  making  general  regulations  on  some  particular 
subject  affecting  itself,  and  containing  a  clause  authorising  details 
to  be  enacted  and  altered  from  time  to  time  by  that  university 
alone,  without  any  power  of  scrutiny  by  the  others  or  reference 
to  the  Privy  Council.  A  striking  instance  of  this  is  furnished  by 
the  new  Arts  Ordinance  for  Glasgow,  which — to  mention  one 
point  only — specifies  27  subjects  from  which  a  curriculum  maybe 
made  up,  leaving  it  to  the  Senatus,  with  the  approval  of  the 
University  Court,  to  make  additions  to  or  modifications  in  these, 
and  to  enact  from  time  to  time  regulations  regarding  the  defini- 
tion and  grouping  of  the  subjects,their  selection  for  the  curriculum, 
their  classification  as  cognate,  and  the  order  in  which  they  are  to 
be  studied,  as  also  regarding  the  standard  of  the  degree  examina- 
tions and  the  conditions  of  admission  thereto.  Such  regulations 
require  to  be  communicated  to  the  General  Council,  but  not  to 
any  outside  body,  either  academic  or  governmental. 

The  course  of  medical  study  was  extended  from  four  to  five 
years.  It  was  impossible,  in  view  of  such  a  long  course,  to  insist 
on  medical  students  taking  a  full  course  in  arts,  but,  as  a  security 
for  the  possession  of  a  liberal  education,  a  preliminary  examination 


XXVl]  DIFFICULTY  IN  MAKING  NEW  ORDINANCES  REMEDIED  349 

was  instituted  in  the  same  subjects  as  for  Arts  students,  French 
or  German  being  allowed  as  alternative  for  Greek.  The  extent 
and  standard  of  the  examination  were  to  be  determined  by  the 
Joint  Board  of  Examiners.  It  was  provided  that  there  must  be 
four  professional  examinations  : — the  first  in  botany,  zoology, 
physics,  and  chemistry;  the  second  in  anatomy,  physiology,  and 
materia  medica  ;  the  third  in  pathology,  medical  jurisprudence, 
and  public  health  ;  and  the  fourth  in  the  various  departments  of 
medicine,  surgery,  and  midwifery. 

It  was  not  thought  desirable  to  establish  an  honours  degree 
in  medicine.  In  Arts  a  student  can  specialise  with  advantage 
because  he  has  already  got  a  liberal  education,  though  he  is 
possibly  much  stronger  in  classics  than  in  mathematics,  or  in 
philosophy  than  in  either.  But  in  medical  study  the  commis- 
sioners remark  :  "  every  candidate  for  this  degree  must  have  a 
competent  knowledge  of  every  branch,  and  it  is  therefore 
impossible  to  acquire  so  exceptional  a  mastery  of  any  one  as 
would  justify  a  degree  with  honours ^"  Notwithstanding  some 
most  sensible  contentions  for  an  honours  degree,  it  was  thought 
"  more  important  that  the  Universities  should  encourage  pro- 
longed study  in  medical  science  by  men  of  riper  age,  than  that 
they  should  recognise  differences  of  degree  in  the  attainments  of 
undergraduates-."  Each  university  however  confers  the  degree 
of  M.B.  as  a  whole  with  honours,  but  without  specification  of 
honours  in  separate  subjects. 

Some  of  the  regulations  framed  by  the  commissioners  of  1858, 
in  their  endeavour  to  bring  the  practice  of  the  universities  into 
harmony  with  the  system  introduced  by  the  Medical  Act,  were 
amended  by  the  commissioners  of  1889.  They  substituted  the 
degree  of  Bachelor  of  Surgery  for  that  of  Master  of  Surgery, 
and  made  the  latter  a  higher  degree  of  the  same  rank  as  Doctor 
of  Medicine.  Both  of  these  higher  degrees  were  obtainable  only 
by  those  who,  being  already  bachelors,  had  spent  an  adequate 
time  in  additional  study  and  practice  of  medicine  or  surgery,  had 
passed    an    examination    in    certain    special    departments   and 

^  J\epori  of  Contntissioners  0/  i^^i),  p.  xvii. 
-  Ibid.,  p.  xviii. 


350  FOURTH   PERIOD.      UNIVERSITIES  [CH. 

submitted  for  approval  of  the  Faculty  of  Medicine  a  thesis  on 
one  or  other  of  certain  specified  branches^ 

In  1858  it  was  decided  to  give  an  academic  character  to 
degrees  in  law  which  had  till  that  time  been  purely  honorary. 
With  this  in  view  the  commissioners  of  that  year  ordained  that 
the  degree  of  Bachelor  of  Law  (LL.B.)  should  be  conferred  only 
on  graduates  in  arts,  who  must  give  three  sessions  to  legal  study 
in  six  departments.  The  commissioners  of  1889,  while  agreeing 
with  this  proposal,  thought  it  desirable  to  give  the  degree  more 
elasticity  and  a  wider  scope,  so  as  to  adapt  it  to  the  wants  of 
other  than  practising  lawyers, — to  men  whose  aim  was  a  public 
or  administrative  career.  The  ordinance  was  accordingly 
amended  to  the  extent  of  giving  options  and  adding  to  the 
number  of  subjects  as  under : 

1.  General  or  Comparative  Jurisprudence. 

2.  The  Law  of  Nations  or  Public  International  Law. 

3.  Civil  Law. 

4.  The  Law  of  Scotland  or  the  Law  of  England. 

5.  Constitutional  Law  and  History. 

6.  Conveyancing  or  Political  Economy  or  Mercantile  Law. 

7.  Two  of  the  following  :  International  Private  Law,  Political 
Economy,  Administrative  Law,  and  Forensic  Medicine. 

In  Edinburgh  and  Glasgow  a  lower  degree  (B.L.),  not  confined 
to  graduates  in  arts,  had  been  established,  the  requisites  for 
which  were  passing  the  preliminary  examination  in  arts,  three 
arts  subjects,  and  four  legal  subjects— Civil  Law,  Law  of  Scotland, 
Conveyancing  and  Forensic  Medicine,  two  years  of  academic 
study,  one  of  which  must  have  been  spent  in  the  university 
granting  the  degree.  St  Andrews  having  no  Faculty  of  Law 
could  not  give  the  degree.  In  Aberdeen  for  some  time  only 
B,  L.  could  be  conferred,  but  in  that  university,  as  also  in 
Glasgow,  an  incomplete  Faculty  of  Law  was  supplemented  by 
lecturers  and  now  Edinburgh,  Glasgow  and  Aberdeen  can 
confer  both  degrees  ^ 

^  Report  of  Commissioners  of  j88g,  p.  xvi. 
-  Ibid.,  p.  xxii. 


XXVl]        MEDICINE,   LAW;   GRADUATION    FOR   WOMEN  35 1 

Previous  to  1889  classes  for  women  in  Arts  and  Medicine,  on 
a  university  standard,  had  been  conducted  in  Edinburgh  and 
Glasgow  outside  the  university.  In  St  Andrews  women  were 
examined  and  obtained  the  title  of  L.L.A.,  but  there  were  no 
classes'.  This  remains  unchanged.  The  title  is  obtained  by 
passing  in  seven  subjects,  of  which  at  least  one  must  be  a 
language.  All  honours  passes  count  as  two  ordinary  passes. 
The  subjects  of  examination  are  arranged  in  four  departments: 
(i)  language,  (2)  philosophy,  (3)  science,  (4)  education,  Biblical 
history  and  literature.  One  subject  out  of  each  of  the  first  three 
departments  must  be  chosen,  the  remaining  subject  or  subjects 
may  be  taken  from  any  department.  The  examination  may  be 
taken  at  any  age,  may  spread  over  any  length  of  time,  and  the 
subjects  may  be  taken  in  any  order.  In  none  of  the  universities 
had  women  been  admitted  to  graduation,  but  an  Ordinance  in 
1892  admitted  women  to  any  degree  on  the  same  terms  as  men. 
Where  in  arts,  science,  or  medicine  no  provision  was  made 
within  the  university  for  the  education  of  women  the  teaching 
of  any  teacher  or  institution  in  the  university  town  might  be 
recognised  by  the  Court  as  qualifying  for  graduation. 

Graduation  in  Divinity. 

The  commissioners  regret  that  they  can  do  nothing  to 
remodel  the  Faculty  of  Divinity.  In  all  the  universities  the 
equipment  is  inadequate,  the  number  of  professors  and  lecturers 
too  few,  and  the  salaries  too  small.  They  could  not  found  new 
chairs,  as  no  portion  of  the  parliamentary  grant  of  ;^42,ocx)  made 
in  1892  could  be  given  to  theological  chairs  beyond  the  sum,  if 
any,  which  "had  been,  within  twelve  months  before  the  commence- 
ment of  the  act,  appropriated  to  such  chairs  out  of  public 
moneys."  They  dissented  from  the  opinion  of  the  Edinbur^rh 
Faculty  of  Divinity,  who  held  that  the  restriction  was  not 
applicable  to  the  parliamentary  grant-. 

The  admission  to  the  degree  of  Bachelor  of  Divinit)-  (B.D.)  of 
students   other   lliaii   members  of  the  Established   Church   was 

'  L.L.A.  means  Lady  Literate  in  Arts. 
*  Report  of  Commissioners  of  1889,  p.  xxiii. 


352  FOURTH    PERIOD.      UNIVERSITIES  [CH. 

regarded  by  the  commissioners  of  1858  as  a  delicate  question, 
but  as  the  universities  favoured  the  proposal,  no  serious 
objection  was  taken  to  it.  Meanwhile  in  all  the  universities 
the  practice  had  been  well  established  as  by  prescriptive  right. 
All  candidates  were  examined,  no  vital  principle  was  involved, 
and  the  commissioners  of  1889  thought  the  "system  was  advan- 
tageous and  ought  to  be  confirmed."  The  examination  was 
accordingly  opened  to  graduates  of  Scottish  universities  who 
had  gone  through  a  due  course  of  theological  training  whether 
in  these  universities  or  in  any  other  theological  school  in 
Scotland  or  England. 

It  was  suggested  to  the  commissioners  that  the  degree  of 
LL.D.  might  be  made  attainable  by  examination,  just  as  the 
higher  degrees  in  science  and  medicine  were  conferred,  but  as 
LL.D.  had  always  been  given  simply  as  a  mark  of  honour,  it 
was  feared  that  confusion  might  arise  from  making  it  represent 
high  legal  attainments  also,  which  the  degree  of  LL.B.  sufficiently 
attested.  This  was  the  conclusion  to  which  the  commissioners 
of  1875  also  came.  The  degrees  of  D.D.  and  LL.D.  continue  to 
be  given  honoris  causa,  the  commissioners  merely  remarking 
that  they  should  be  conferred  with  "  due  deliberation,  and  not 
in  deference  to  applications  from  without." 

A  dditional  A  s sis t ants. 

There  is  no  respect  in  which  the  commissioners  of  1889 
have  contributed  so  much  to  the  improvement  of  the  university, 
as  in  the  means  they  took  to  make  provision  for  a  steadily 
increasing  growth  of  students  and  new  subjects  of  instruction, 
by  adding  to  the  number  of  assistants  and  lecturers.  Many  of 
the  classes  were  too  large  to  be  managed  by  professors  however 
accomplished  and  energetic.  The  number  of  Latin  students  in 
1889  in  Glasgow  was  453,  and  the  number  of  anatomy  students 
in  1889  in  Edinburgh  was  for  winter  300  at  lectures,  and  in 
practical  anatomy  534  for  winter  and  167  for  summer.  It  was 
proposed  to  meet  this  evil  by  extending  to  all  the  faculties  the 
same  recognition  of  extra-mural  teaching  as  had  been  given  to 
the  Faculty  of  Medicine.    This  question  was  carefully  considered 


XXVl]  DIFFICULTIES   OF   EXTRA-MURAL   TEACHING  353 

by  the  commissioners  of  1876,  who  thought  it  would  be  injurious. 
With  this  opinion  the  commissioners  of  1889  heartily  agreed. 

The  grounds  were  various.  One,  but  not  the  most  important, 
was  the  diminution  of  the  already  too  small  income  of  the 
universities.  A  much  more  important  one  was  the  almost 
inevitable  lowering  of  the  instruction.  The  excellent  results  of 
extra-mural  teaching  in  medicine  were  no  guide  to  the  expediency 
of  adopting  the  same  system  in  the  Faculty  of  Arts.  They 
pointed  out  that  the  aim  of  medical  teaching  is  the  acquisition 
of  definite  and  exact  information,  on  which  the  student  is  to  be 
examined  and  pronounced  qualified  for  a  profession,  and  that  it 
is  of  comparatively  little  importance  where  or  how  his  informa- 
tion has  been  acquired,  while  the  aim  of  a  teacher  in  the  Faculty 
of  Arts  is  to  supply  the  broadening  influence  which  forms  the  basis 
of  a  liberal  education,  and  that  of  the  student  is,  or  ought  to  be, 
primarily  mental  culture,  not  ability  to  pass  an  examination'. 
It  is  not  insinuated  that  instruction  in  medical  subjects  may  not 
be,  and  in  many  well-known  instances  is,  eminently  scientific  and 
stimulative,  nor  that  all  students  in  the  F'aculty  of  Arts  work 
under  the  inspiring  motive  of  mental  culture,  but  it  will  be 
generally  granted  that  the  aim  of  each  class  of  students  is 
different,  and  fairly  represented  by  the  account  thus  given  of 
them.  If  the  extra-mural  teachers  are  to  live  they  must  have 
large  classes,  and  large  classes  can  be  got  only  by  the  teachers 
earning  a  reputation  for  success  in  enabling  their  pupils  to  pass 
the  required  examination.  It  is  inevitable  that  competition  of 
this  kind  would  take  the  direction  of  examination  success,  to  the 
detriment  of  the  higher  aim  of  mental  culture,  which,  from  an 
academic  point  of  view,  would  be  a  great  evil.  To  meet  the 
case  of  subjects  taking  a  wider  range  than  formerly,  or  the 
introduction  of  new  subjects,  or  of  classes  unmanageably  large, 
the  commissioners  preferred  to  appoint  assistants  and  lecturers, 
whose  teaching  would  be  on  the  same  lines  as  that  of  the 
professors,  under  the  superintendence  and  regulations  of  the 
University  Court  and  Senatus,  and,  in  this  way,  to  avoid  the 
danger  of  cram,  and  the  tendency  to  subordinate  the  true 
principle  of  sound    universit}'  education   to  examination  aims. 

'  Report  of  Commissioners^  p.  .\xv. 
K.  E.  23 


354  FOURTH    PERIOD.      UNIVERSITIES  [CH. 

They  accordingly  ordained  that  the  University  Court,  after 
consultation  with  the  Senatus,  should  determine  the  number, 
duties,  remuneration  and  tenure  of  office  of  assistants  and 
lecturers ;  that  they  should  be  recognised  as  officers  of  the 
university  but  not  members  of  the  Senatus  ;  that  their  lectures 
should,  as  a  rule,  qualify  for  graduation,  and  that  their  appoint- 
ment, dismissal,  and  arrangements  for  teaching  should  all  be 
under  the  superintendence  of  the  University  Court  and  the 
Senatus.  The  commissioners  saw  that,  by  the  institution  of 
this  class  of  university  officers,  encouragement  would  be  given 
to  post-graduate  study  and  research  by  students  of  promise, 
from  whom  there  would  be  furnished  for  vacancies  in  professor- 
ships a  supply  of  candidates  of  successful  experience,  an 
anticipation  in  many  cases  realised.  It  was  the  natural  comple- 
tion of  university  promotion—  bursaries  to  enable  students  of 
ability  to  follow  a  course  of  study,  scholarships  and  fellowships 
to  reward  excellence  attained,  and  professorships  to  crown  the 
career. 

Bursary  Regulations. 

The  commissioners  were  empowered  to  "  frame  regulations 
under  which  the  patronage  of  existing  bursaries  vested  in  private 
individuals  or  bodies  corporate  should  be  exercised,"  but  not  to 
abolish  the  rights  so  vested.  They  had  neither  the  power  nor  the 
wish  to  throw  them  all  open  to  competition.  They  knew  the  un- 
favourable position  of  many  candidates  who,  owing  to  the  deficient 
character  of  the  schools  in  which  they  had  been  taught,  were  in 
this  way  unfairly  handicapped  in  competition  with  students  who 
may  have  had  better  preparation  at  school,  but  not  necessarily 
greater  ability.  It  is  probable  that  the  donors  intended  their 
endowments  for  students  of  this  class,  and  their  intention  was 
entitled  to  respect.  By  Ordinance  57  the  commissioners  made 
an  excellent  use  of  their  limited  power  in  this  matter.  Candi- 
dates for  bursaries  not  open  to  competition  must  pass  the 
preliminary  examination.  Candidates  who  failed  to  produce 
class  certificates  could  be  deprived  of  their  bursaries.  Presenta- 
tion bursaries  could  be  thrown  open  to  competition,  if  the 
patrons  did  not  fill  up  vacancies  in  due  time.     Bursaries  of  less 


XXVI]  APPOINTMENT   OF   ASSISTANTS  ;     BURSARIES  355 

than  i!"io  could  be  combined  to  make  one  of  larger  value,  the 
restrictions  being  removed  wherever  possible.  Bursaries  of 
doubtful  usefulness  were  combined  to  form  scholarships  and 
fellowships  for  the  promotion  of  study  and  research,  a  respect  in 
which  the  universities  were  poorly  provided.  For  a  comparison 
of  the  educational  efficacy  of  competition  versus  presentation 
bursaries  in  Aberdeen,  see  pp.  280 — 2. 

Among  the  changes  made  by  Ordinance  57  there  was  one 
which  was  favourably  received  by  all  the  universities  except  by 
certain  members  of  the  University  of  Aberdeen.  This  regulation 
was  that  "  the  examination  subjects  for  open  bursaries  in  arts 
for  the  first  year  should  be  those  prescribed  for  the  preliminary 
examination  in  arts,  but  under  this  condition,  that  in  determining 
the  marks  to  be  assigned  in  the  competition,  English,  Latin,  Greek 
and  mathematics  shall  each  have  assigned  to  them  double  the 
marks  assigned  to  any  other  subject'." 

It  is  not  clear  why  there  should  have  been  in  Aberdeen  any 
objection  to  the  doubling  of  the  marks  for  English,  Latin,  Greek, 
and  mathematics,  these  being  subjects  in  which  Aberdeen  had 
the  reputation  of  being  strong,  while  it  had  no  such  reputation 
for  French  or  German.  The  Professor  of  Latin  was  opposed  to  the 
Ordinance,  but  he  objected  not  to  the  principle  of  differentiating 
values  as  between  classics  and  modern  languages,  but  only  to 
the  method  in  which  it  was  applied-.  In  their  report  the  com- 
missioners thought  it  necessary  to  make  a  reasoned  statement 
in  support  of  the  Ordinance.  Their  defence  of  the  proposal  is 
based  on  an  assumption,  the  accuracy  of  which  is  hotly  disputed 
in  quarters  entitled  to  respect,  viz.  that  "  the  time  required  to 
bring  a  classical  pupil  up  to  the  standard  of  a  higher  grade 
certificate  of  the  Scotch  Education  Department  in  Latin  or 
Greek  is  twice  or  even  thrice  the  time  required  to  prepare  him 
for  the  higher  certificate  in  French  or  German."  On  this 
assumption,  right  or  wrong,  the  commissioners  maintain  that 
the  proposal  of  double  marks  for  the  subjects  named  is  fair  and 
equitable ;  and  that,  by  placing  French  or  German  on  the  same 
level  as  Latin  or  Greek,  a  powerful  inducement  would  be  given 


'  Rcporl  of  Commissioners,  p.  xxix. 
'^  Ibid.  pp.  xxx  and  xxxi. 


23—2 


356  FOURTH    PERIOD.      UNIVERSITIES  [CH. 

to  candidates  of  small  means,  to  whom  a  bursary  is  indispensable, 
to  give  up  Latin  or  Greek,  and  serious  harm  would  be  done  to 
classical  education,  as  bursary  examinations  exert  a  powerful 
influence  on  the  curriculum  of  secondary  schools.  It  is  highly 
probable,  in  view  of  the  late  successful  efforts  made  by  each 
university  to  secure  autonomy  all  round,  and  the  framing  of 
ordinances  for  the  introduction  of  '  soft '  options  from  which  a 
curriculum  may  be  constructed,  that  French  and  German  will  at 
no  distant  date  be  put  on  the  same  footing  as  Latin  and  Greek. 

As  women  were  now  admitted  to  graduation,  it  was  necessary 
that  bursaries  should  be  provided  for  them.  The  commissioners 
accordingly  empowered  the  University  Courts  to  establish  for 
competition  either  without  restriction  as  to  sex,  or  for  women 
only,  as  many  bursaries  as  they  might  think  necessary. 

The  commissioners  of  1889  were  empowered  to  establish 
bursary  funds  in  all  the  universities.  Under  the  Act  of  1858  a 
bursary  fund  was  established  in  Aberdeen  into  which  the  surplus 
income  of  some  foundations,  and  the  income  of  vacant  bursaries 
were  paid.  Out  of  it  the  cost  of  examination  and  the  augmenta- 
tion of  bursaries  were  met.  Its  accumulations  now  amounted  to 
;^I0,500,  The  commissioners  of  1889  thought  that  it  was  not 
advantageous  to  continue  the  Aberdeen  bursary  fund ;  that  it  was 
better  to  capitalise  the  accumulated  sum,  and  that  "the  surplus 
income  of  any  foundation  should  in  future  be  added  to  the 
capital  fund  of  the  foundation,  and  be  applied  to  increasing  the 
payments  to  the  beneficiaries^"  the  University  Court  having 
power  to  increase  or  reduce  the  value  of  bursaries  or  scholarships 
as  they  might  think  desirable. 

Patronage  and  Petisions. 

In  dealing  with  the  patronage  of  professorships  the  com- 
missioners had  no  difficulty  with  the  provision  in  section  14  for 
the  transference  to  the  University  Court  of  the  patronage  vested 
in  private  individuals  or  corporations  other  than  the  Curators  of 
the  Edinburgh  University.  The  only  chairs  to  which  it  applied 
were    those   of    Humanity,    Civil    and    Natural    History,    and 

^  Heport  of  Commissioners,  p.  xxxiii. 


XXVl]      BURSARY  EXAMINATIONS;  PATRONAGE;  PENSIONS      35/ 

Chemistry  in  St  Andrews.  The  patrons  were  the  Duke  of 
Portland,  the  Marquis  of  Ailsa,  and  the  Earl  of  Leven  and 
Melville,  who  offered  no  objection.  An  ordinance  was  accord- 
ingly issued  and  received  the  Queen's  approval. 

The  power  conveyed  in  subsection  14  (c)  was  a  matter 
of  much  greater  difficulty,  viz.  "to  prepare  a  scheme  by  which  a 
detailed  and  reasoned  report  on  the  qualifications  of  candidates 
for  chairs  may  be  submitted  to  the  patrons,  including  the  Crown, 
so  as  to  assist  them  in  the  discharge  of  their  patronage." 

Success  in  framing  a  scheme,  accompanied  by  a  detailed  and 
reasoned  report  on  a  subject  bristling  with  difficulties  from  so 
many  points  of  view,  was  not  to  be  expected.  The  commissioners, 
however,  undaunted  by  the  magnitude  of  the  task,  after  very 
careful  consideration,  issued  a  draft  ordinance,  to  which  objections 
were  made  by  all  the  universities,  and  by  every  corporation 
who  had  a  share  in  patronage,  and  the  draft  ordinance  was 
withdrawn. 

Additional  funds  were  required,  and,  in  answer  to  an 
appeal  to  the  Treasury,  it  was  enacted  that  an  annual  sum 
of  ^42,000,  already  referred  to,  was  to  be  provided  by  par- 
liament for  the  purposes  of  the  universities,  which  the  com- 
missioners were  to  apportion  in  such  shares  as  they  might  think 
just.  This  grant  was  subject  to  two  conditions:  (i)  That  no 
university  should  receive  less  than  the  average  amount  of  public 
moneys  which  it  had  received  during  the  five  years  preceding 
the  commencement  of  the  Act  of  1889,  and  that  Glasgow  should 
receive  ;^500  for  the  maintenance  of  the  buildings,  and  Aberdeen 
jC}20  for  the  purchase  of  books,  in  addition  to  the  average 
amounts  already  mentioned.  (2)  That  no  part  of  this  increased 
grant  should  be  appropriated  to  any  theological  chairs  except 
those  of  Hebrew  or  Oriental  languages.  It  was  also  enacted 
that,  in  future,  pensions  to  principals  and  professors  were  to  be 
paid  by  the  universities,  and  that  the  grant  was  a  full  dischargeof  all 
claims  on  public  moneys.  A  Treasury  minute  was  however  issued 
by  the  Chancellor  of  the  Exchequer,  to  the  effect  that  he  would 
recommend  a  moderate  increase  in  case  of  pecuniary  difficulties 
in  connection  with  pensions  and  compensations.  The  commis- 
sioners were  in  the  meantime,  till  the  ordinances  were  approved. 


358  FOURTH    PERIOD.      UNIVERSITIES  [CII. 

empowered  to  make  provisional  payments  out  of  tlie  surplus 
revenue  from  the  grant,  if  they  thought  proper.  On  this  under- 
standing, grants  for  the  four  years  and  a  quarter  from  1890  to 
1893  were  paid,  to  Glasgow  nearly  iJ"3 5,000,  to  Aberdeen  nearly 
;^28,ooo,  to  Edinburgh  nearly  ^^43,000,  and  to  St  Andrews  for  the 
eight  years  and  a  quarter  from  1890  to  1897  upwards  of  ^^46,000^ 

It  turned  out  that  pecuniary  difficulties  did  arise  from  the 
indefinite  amount  of  possible  claims  for  pensions  and  compensa- 
tions and,  on  the  advice  of  eminent  lawyers,  the  commissioners 
expressed  to  the  Government  the  opinion  that  further  aid  was 
required  "  to  enable  the  Act  of  Parliament  to  be  carried  into 
effect."  The  result  of  this  was  that,  under  the  Act  of  1892,  an 
additional  grant  of  ^^30,000  was  made,  which  was  a  useful 
increase  to  the  resources  of  the  universities,  but  the  fluctuating 
charge  for  pensions  was  still  a  source  of  embarrassment. 

As  a  remedy  for  this,  the  commissioners  advised  each 
university  to  establish  a  pension  fund,  by  setting  aside  annually, 
from  the  general  revenues,  a  certain  amount  to  meet  claims  for 
possible  pensions.     This  advice  was  taken. 

The  annual  charge  for  St  Andrews  was  ^^750. 

„  Glasgow  „     Aooo. 

„         „  ,,  „  Aberdeen  „     ^^1500. 

„  Edinburgh         „     ^^5000. 

By  Ordinance  32,  section  iv,  the  annual  emoluments  of  a 
Principal  or  Professor  on  retirement  will  be  the  average  of  the 
preceding  five  years,  provided  that  in  calculating  his  pension  no 
account  will  be  taken  of  the  excess  in  any  one  year  above  £goo, 
which  shall  be  held  to  be  the  maximum  emoluments  of  a  Principal 
or  Professor. 

The  maximum  pension  is  ;i^6oo  for  professors  of  the  following 
two  classes,  (a)  professors  appointed  by  the  Crown  subsequently 
to  1882,  (d)  all  professors  by  whomsoever  appointed  subsequently 
to  1889.  Put  professors  may  have  a  pension  exceeding  ;^6oo  if 
{a)  they  were  appointed  by  the  Crown  or  any  other  body  before 
1882,  or  if  (d)  they  were  appointed  by  any  other  body  than  the 
Crown  between  1882  and  1889. 

^  Report  of  Commissioners,  p.  xxxiv. 


XXVr]    FINANCIAL  DIFFICULTIES  OF  THE   NEW   SYSTEM        359 

The  patronage  of  chairs  varies  considerably  in  the  four 
universities,  but  a  very  large  proportion  of  it  is  in  the  hands  of 
the  Crown  and  of  the  University  Courts. 

In  dealing  with  financial  arrangements  the  commissioners 
wished  to  leave  to  the  universities,  as  far  as  possible,  a  free  hand, 
but  the  question  of  fees  was  too  important  to  be  left  untouched. 
It  was  necessary  to  consider  how  fees  should  be  treated,  forming 
as  they  did  part  and,  till  now,  a  main  part  of  the  professors' 
emoluments.  The  introduction  of  optional  subjects  for  gradua- 
tion in  arts  made  some  change  desirable.  That  the  professor 
should  have  a  direct  interest  in  fees  led  inevitably  to  unwholesome 
rivalry,  and  to  a  lowering  of  the  academic  ideal,  which  ought 
not  to  have  for  its  highest  aim  the  preparation  of  students  for 
examination.  Enlargement  of  class  and  consequent  increase  of 
fees  might,  and  probably  would,  tempt  some  professors  to  be 
content  with  a  lowered  standard.  But  further,  the  consideration, 
among  others,  that  the  higher  and  more  advanced  the  subjects, 
the  smaller  would  be  both  class  and  fees,  led  the  commissioners 
to  ordain  that  class  fees  should  be  paid  into  the  University  Court 
as  the  earnings  of  the  university;  that  each  professor  should 
receive  a  salar\'  (called  a  normal  salary)  which  might  be 
diminished  proportionally,  if  the  aggregate  amount  of  fees  in  any 
year  was  unable  to  meet  the  claims  on  the  fee  fund;  but  in  order 
that  the  emoluments  should  not  fall  below  a  certain  amount,  a 
minimum  salary  was  fixed,  which  should  be  a  charge  on  the 
general  revenue  of  the  university^.  This  arrangement  involved 
a  very  serious  reduction  of  the  income  of  a  number  of  chairs, 
but  even  this,  a  very  thorny  subject,  was  settled  to  the  general 
satisfaction  of  those  whose  vested  interests  were  very  largely 
interfered  with. 

Nezv  Chairs  instituted. 

Meanwhile  fresh  burdens  were  laid  on  each  University  Court 
by  the  appointment  of  lecturers,  the  institution  of  new  degrees, 
and  alterations  in  the  course  of  study. 

New    chairs    wore    instituted — "in     Glasgow,    History    and 

'  Report  of  Commissioners,  p.  xxxviii. 


360  FOURTH    PERIOD.      UNIVERSITIES  [CH. 

Pathology;  in  Edinburgh,  History;  in  St  Andrews,  Pathology, 
Materia  Medica,  Medicine,  Surgery,  and  Midwifery.  By 
special  endowment  there  were  instituted  in  St  Andrews, 
the  Berry  Chair  of  English  Literature;  in  Glasgow,  Political 
Economy;  in  Aberdeen,  English  Literature;  and  in  Edinburgh, 
Public  Healths"  In  1901  the  Chair  of  Ancient  History  was 
founded  in  Edinburgh,  and  in  1903  the  Chair  of  History  and 
Archaeology  was  founded  in  Aberdeen. 

Graduation  in  music  is,  as  yet,  possible  only  in  Edinburgh, 
a  result  of  the  Reid  Bequest  already  referred  to.  Two  degrees 
may  be  conferred,  Bachelor  of  Music  (Mus.  Bac.)  and  Doctor 
of  Music  (Mus.  Doc),  the  latter  being  open  only  to  Edinburgh 
Bachelors  of  Music  of  not  less  than  three  years'  standing. 

The  commissioners  would  have  liked  to  institute  a  separate 
faculty  for  every  subject  worthy  of  academic  study,  and  fitted  to 
develop  intelligence  and  refinement,  but  funds  were  not  available 
for  the  efficient  maintenance  of  the  faculties  already  existing. 
The  commissioners,  like  those  of  1876,  had  not  sufficient  funds 
for  the  establishment  of  new  chairs,  and  they  thought  it  undesir- 
able to  establish  chairs  for  which  sufficient  endowments  were 
not  provided.  Lecturers  on  specially  important  subjects  might 
be  appointed  by  the  University  Courts,  but  permanent  burdens 
which  might  prove  too  heavy  should  be  avoided. 

The  moneys  paid  to  the  universities  on  account  of  accumula- 
tions of  revenue  from  the  grants  of  1889  and  1892  were  to  Glasgow 
£2g,27Z,  to  Aberdeen  £16,149,  to  Edinburgh  ^^36,876.  The 
ordinances  allowed  the  Courts  of  these  three  universities  to 
make  of  these  moneys  whatever  use  they  might  think  fit.  St 
Andrews,  in  the  meantime,  could  not  be  dealt  with  in  the  same 
way,  owing  to  the  litigation  between  it  and  the  University 
College  of  Dundee. 

This  litigation,  which  commenced  in  1890,  and  ended  in  1897, 
being  political  or  personal  rather  than  educational,  seems  hardly 
within  the  scope  of  our  enquiry.  To  describe  in  detail  the  legal 
difficulties  and  cross-purposes  on  both  sides,  which  punctuate 
the  question  before  an  agreement  was  come  to,  would  be  both 
tedious  and  unprofitable. 

^  Report  of  Commissioners,  p.  xxxix. 


XX vt]  provision  for  women's  education  361 

Queen  Margaret  College,  Glasgow^  had  its  origin  in  1868  as 
the  result  of  a  movement  for  the  higher  education  of  women  by 
Mrs  Campbell  of  Tulliehewan.  For  several  years  short  courses 
of  lectures  were  delivered  by  professors  of  the  university.  The 
next  step  was  the  formation  in  1877  of  the  Glasgow  association 
for  the  same  purpose,  with  H.R.H.  the  Princess  Louise  for  its 
president,  and  Mrs  Campbell  for  its  vice-president.  Lectures  on 
university  subjects  were,  by  permission  of  the  Senate,  given  by 
university  professors  in  the  university  class-rooms,  the  association 
meanwhile  renting  an  office  and  reading-room.  The  next  step 
was  taken  in  1883  by  the  incorporation  of  the  association  as  a 
college  with  the  name  Queen  Margaret,  the  earliest  patroness 
of  Scottish  literature  and  art.  That  it  might  not  be  merely  a 
name,  Mrs  Elder,  a  lady  of  great  generosity  and  public  spirit, 
presented  the  association  with  the  building  now  known  as  Queen 
Margaret  College.  The  condition  attached  to  this  gift,  viz., that  an 
endowment  fund  sufficient  to  provide  for  the  effective  carrying  on 
of  the  work  should  be  raised,  was  in  a  short  time  amply  satisfied. 

The  contributions  from  various  sources  amounted  to  nearly 
;^25,ooo.  Step  by  step,  additions  and  alterations,  including 
laboratories  for  teaching  in  science  and  medicine,  were  provided, 
and  in  1890  such  a  curriculum  in  both  Arts  and  Medicine,  on  the 
level  of  university  degrees,  was  arranged  for,  that  in  1892  when 
women  were  first  admitted  to  graduation,  the  council  of  the  college 
decided  that  the  purpose  they  had  in  view  would  be  better  served 
by  making  over  their  work  to  the  University  of  Glasgow.  It 
was  accordingly  proposed,  with  the  concurrence  of  Mrs  Elder,  to 
offer  a  transfer  of  the  buildings  and  grounds  of  the  Queen 
Margaret  College  to  the  university,  on  condition  that  they 
should  be  employed  for  the  maintenance  of  university  classes 
exclusively  for  women.  The  University  Court  accepted  the  offer, 
and  Queen  Margaret  College  became  part  of  the  university,  had 
its  teachers  appointed  by  the  University  Court,  and  its  students 
admitted  as  matriculated  students.  In  1907-8  the  number  of 
matriculated  women-students  was  631. 

For  the  promotion  of  post-graduate  study  and  the  encourage- 
ment of  research,  an  ordinance  was  framed,  under  which  the 
Senatus    in    each    university  might,  with   the    approval    of   the 


362  FOURTH   PERIOD.      UNIVERSITIES  [CH. 

University  Court,  admit  graduates  of  any  university,  or  others 
whose  education  fitted  them  to  engage  in  some  special  study,  to 
continue  their  investigations,  and  possibly  earn  the  title  of 
Research  Fellow  on  their  showing  special  distinction.  The 
revenue  of  ;^20,ooo  furnished  by  the  Earl  of  Moray  was  placed  in 
the  hands  of  the  University  of  Edinburgh  for  the  payment  of  the 
expenses  of  original  research  and  the  publishing  of  noteworthy 
results. 

Aberdeen  has  made  a  most  successful  use  of  this  ordinance 
and,  under  the  able  editorship  of  Mr  P.  J.  Anderson,  has  issued 
a  series  of  publications  for  the  supervision  of  which  a  committee 
of  the  Senatus  has  been  appointed,  and  the  cooperation  of  the 
New  Spalding  Club  secured.  No  fewer  than  forty  volumes  have 
already  appeared. 

The  subjects  dealt  with  cover  a  wide  field,  including,  among 
others,  Classical  Archaeology,  Scottish  History,  Bibliography, 
Philosophy,  Comparative  Religion,  Anatomy,  Pathology,  Zoology 
and  Chemistry.  The  object  of  the  movement  is  to  stimulate 
research  within  the  university  by  the  teaching  staff  and  others 
connected  with  the  university,  and  to  unite  by  a  bond  of 
common  interest  and  intellectual  fellowship  alumni  who,  after 
leaving  the  university,  too  often  lo.se  sight  of  each  other.  This 
has  been  followed  by  an  interchange  of  volumes  with  American, 
continental,  colonial  and  the  newer  English  universities.  So 
far  Oxford  and  Cambridge  have  not  organised  an  interchange. 

T]ie  Carnegie   Trust. 

From  yet  another  quarter  hearty  encouragement  in  the  same 
direction  was  received.  In  1901  Mr  Andrew  Carnegie,  the 
well-known  American  millionaire,  gave  to  Scotland — his  native 
country — the  sum  often  million  dollars  (^2,000,000),  the  interest 
on  which — amounting  to  about  i^  102,000  a  year — was  to  be 
expended  by  a  committee  of  nine  members  to  promote  the 
following  objects  : — 

A.  One-half  of  the  net  annual  income  was  to  be  applied  to 
the  improvement  and  expansion  of  the  universities  of  Scotland 
in  the  Faculties  of  Science  and  Medicine,  and  to  increasing  the 


XXVl]     POST-GRADUATE  STUDY.      THE  CARNEGIE  TRUST  363 

facilities  for  acquiring  a  knowledge  of  such  subjects  of  a  technical 
and  commercial  education  as  can  be  included  in  a  university 
curriculum,  by  erecting  buildings,  providing  apparatus,  endowing 
professorships,  post-graduate  lectureships,  and  research  scholar- 
ships ;  and  by  other  means  approved  by  the  committee. 

B.  The  other  half,  or  as  much  of  it  as  might  be  needed 
yearly,  was  to  be  devoted  to  the  payment  of  the  ordinary  class 
fees  exigible  by  the  universities  or  by  extra-mural  schools 
providing  an  equivalent  education,  for  students  of  Scottish  birth 
or  extraction,  subject  to  certain  restrictions  as  to  age,  scholastic 
qualifications,  diligence  and  conduct. 

It  was  provided  also  that  any  surplus  remaining  in  any  year 
after  the  payment  of  fees  under  section  B,  was  to  be  applied  to 
the  purposes  specified  in  section  A,  and  any  surplus  remaining 
after  the  requirements  of  both  clauses  were  fulfilled  was  to  be 
devoted  to  the  establishment  of  courses  of  lectures  at  convenient 
centres,  or  to  the  benefit  of  students  at  evening  classes,  or  to 
such  other  objects  as  the  committee  might  think  proper. 

Under  section  A  the  committee  distributed  no  less  than 
;^  1 78,000  up  to  the  31st  Dec.  1906,  at  which  date  they  carried 
forward  a  balance  of  ;^i  25,000.  The  aid  thus  given  greatly 
improved  the  efficiency  of  the  universities  and  other  institutions, 
whilst  the  stimulus  given  to  higher  study  and  original  investiga- 
tion by  the  research  scholarships  has  proved  of  the  utmost 
value.  In  session  1906-7  the  Trust  awarded  20  fellowships, 
26  scholarships,  and  gave  57  grants  for  promotion  of  post- 
graduate study  in  the  four  Scottish  universities. 

In  the  four  universities  considerable  disparity  is  shown  in  the 
number  of  students  for  whom  fees  have  been  paid.  In  the  six 
academic  years  up  to  and  including  session  1906-7,  69  per  cent, 
of  the  students  matriculating  at  Aberdeen  became  beneficiaries 
of  the  Trust.  St  Andrews  came  next  with  6"]  per  cent,  whilst 
Glasgow  and  PIdinburgh  had  only  49  and  38  per  cent,  respectively. 
The  abnormally  low  percentage  at  Edinburgh  may  be  accounted 
for  partly  by  the  large  number  of  other-than-Scottish  students 
matriculated  there,  and  by  the  number  of  law  students  who 
attend  classes,  but  are  excluded  from  the  benefits  of  the  Trust 
through  not  having  passed  the  preliminary  examination. 


364  FOURTH    PERIOD.      UNIVERSITIES  [CH. 

It  is  impossible  to  speak  too  highly  of  the  beneficent  opera- 
tion of  section  A,  but  appreciation  of  section  B  has  not  been  so 
hearty  and  unanimous.  Doubts  have  been  pretty  freely  expressed 
as  to  the  expediency  of  practically  making  a  pass  in  the 
preliminary  examination  the  only  condition  of  obtaining  a  free 
university  education.  It  is  beyond  question  that  many,  of  whose 
ability  to  pay  their  own  fees  there  could  be  no  doubt,  have 
taken  advantage  of  this,  and  the  result  has  been,  as  some  think, 
a  lowering  of  self-respect  and  a  slackening  of  effort  in  university 
pursuits.  It  has  not  increased  the  number  of  students,  which 
was  perhaps  not  desirable.  Administration  was  difficult  even 
for  the  eminent  men  whose  selection  as  trustees  was  heartily 
approved.  There  were  many  points  to  be  considered  requiring 
a  more  intimate  acquaintance  with  the  character  of  Scottish 
education  than  the  trustees  as  a  body  possessed.  Hence  there 
has  been  a  want  of  consistency.  The  first  set  of  rules  were 
found  to  be  unworkable,  and  had  to  be  exchanged  for  another 
set,  the  former  by  their  wide  scope  suggesting  that  the 
Trust  was  an  educational  endowment,  the  latter,  by  refusing 
(among  other  claims)  payment  of  fees  for  optional  advanced 
classes,  that  it  was  a  charity,  securing  for  the  comparatively  poor 
student  a  minimum  of  university  training.  It  is  however  only 
fair  to  say  that  the  trustees  were  dealing  tentatively  with  a 
movement  the  issues  of  which  it  was  difficult  to  foresee ;  and 
that  consistency  was  limited  by  the  amount  of  funds  available. 
Students  who  have  availed  themselves  of  the  offer  of  free  fees 
are  expected  to  repay,  when  they  can,  what  they  have  obtained 
by  exemption  from  the  payment  of  fees.  It  is  much  too  soon 
to  expect  a  large  return  from  this  source. 

Higher  Degrees. 

An  important  ordinance  was  framed  for  regulating  the 
higher  degrees  of  Doctor  of  Science  (D.Sc),  Doctor  of  Philosophy 
(D.Phil.)  and  Doctor  of  Letters  (D.Litt.),  which,  under  certain 
conditions,  might  be  conferred  after  the  expiry  of  five  years  from 
the  date  of  graduation  in  arts.  All  candidates  for  these  higher 
degrees  must  either  have  taken  honours  in  the  subjects  of  the 


XXVI]       DOCTORS   OF   SCIENCE,   PHILOSOPHY,   LETTERS  365 

decree  for  which  they  are  candidates,  or  have  passed  an  exami- 
nation of  value  equivalent  to  an  honours  examination.  Each 
candidate  must  submit  a  thesis  or  memoir  cognate  to  the  degree 
aimed  at,  accompanied  by  a  declaration  that  it  was  composed  by 
himself  To  secure  that  the  work  for  which  these  degrees 
may  be  conferred  is  an  original  contribution,  it  is  provided 
that  an  expert  in  the  subject  of  the  thesis  must  be  associated 
with  the  university  examiner,  and  that  the  thesis  must  be 
published. 

The  most  important  of  the  general  ordinances  have  now 
been  dealt  with.  The  varying  conditions  of  individual  universi- 
ties in  respect  of  management,  equipment,  revenues,  faculties,  &c. 
made  separate  ordinances  requisite.  To  enter  into  these  in 
minute  detail  is  not  possible,  nor  for  our  purpose  necessary.  It 
has  been  in  some  cases  difficult  to  keep  the  general  and  special 
entirely  separate. 


Medical  Study  in  St  Andrews  and  Dundee. 

Lectureships  on  fifteen  university  subjects  have  been  insti- 
tuted in  St  Andrews  within  the  last  fifteen  years,  only  a  few 
of  which  have  been  endowed.  Between  St  Andrews  and  Dundee 
there  is  now  a  complete  medical  faculty.  In  fact  there  is  a 
complete  faculty  in  Dundee  alone,  as  all  the  St  Andrews'  chairs 
have  been  duplicated  there.  A  medical  student  may  begin  and 
end  his  course  in  Dundee.  If  he  begins  in  St  Andrews  he 
must  finish  in  Dundee,  because  St  Andrews  has  not  sufficient 
hospital  facilities. 

In  St  Andrews  special  ordinances  were  required  in  connec- 
tion with  graduation  in  medicine  ;  the  abolition  of  the  Professor- 
ship of  Medicine  and  the  substitution  of  a  Chair  of  Botany  in  its 
place  ;  the  abolition  of  the  Professorships  of  English,  and  of 
Classics,  and  Ancient  History,  in  University  College,  Dundee,  and 
the  substitution  of  lectureships  in  these  subjects  qualifying  for 
graduation  if  required  by  the  council  of  the  college  ;  St  Andrews' 
share  in  the  parliamentary  grant;  the  composition  of  the  faculties; 
regulations  for  bursaries  and  prizes  ;  the  foundation  of  the  Berry 


l66  FOURTH    PERIOD.      UNIVERSITIES  [CH. 

Chair  of  English  Literature  S  the  institution  of  boards  of  studies  in 
medicine,  and  the  appointment  of  a  lecturer  on  forensic  medicine 
and  public  health  in  University  College,  Dundee.  For  all  these 
separate  ordinances  were  framed. 

The  commissioners  of  1889  wished  to  establish  uniformity  of 
system  in  medical  graduation  in  all  the  universities,  but  St 
Andrews  presented  considerable  difficulties.  Reference  is  made 
to  a  special  report  in  1861  by  the  commissioners  of  1858,  in 
which  it  was  stated  that  "  at  that  date  St  Andrews,  with  no 
medical  students,  conferred  a  greater  number  of  medical  degrees 
than  any  other  University  in  the  United  Kingdom.  Of  the 
candidates  for  these  degrees,  68  per  cent,  came  from  London 
schools,  and  ']']  per  cent,  from  these  and  the  provincial  schools  of 
England  together-."  This  had  a  very  suspicious  look,  suggesting 
great  possibilities  of  abuse,  and  some  restriction  was  obviously 
necessary.  The  commissioners  of  1858  accordingly  ordained 
that  degrees  of  Bachelor  of  Medicine  and  Master  in  Surgery 
should  be  conferred  only  after  a  specified  course  of  study,  and 
that  two  out  of  the  four  years  of  study  should  have  been  spent 
in  a  university,  and  that,  in  exceptional  cases,  the  degree  of 
M.D.  might  be  conferred,  but  not  to  a  greater  extent  than  ten 
cases  in  any  one  year.  Complaint  was  made  that  St  Andrews 
was  being  deprived  of  its  ancient  privilege  of  conferring  degrees 
without  residence.  The  commissioners  of  1876  took  the  same 
view  as  to  the  necessity  of  restriction  as  the  commissioners  of 
1858  and  recommended  that  it  should  not  be  removed. 

The  commissioners  of  1889  agreed  with  this  for  the  very 
satisfactory  reason,  that  to  confer  degrees  on  licentiates,  who 
might  not  have  obtained  any  part  of  their  education  in  a  uni- 
versity, was  not  only  a  violation  of  academic  usage,  and  a 
probable  injury  to  other  universities,  but  a  certain  lowering  of 
the  reputation  of  Scottish  medical  degrees.  The  commissioners 
accordingly  continued    the  restriction  and  even   increased    the 

^  The  Berry  Bequest  was  a  sum  of  ^100,000  bequeathed  to  the  university  in  1889 
by  Mr  David  Berry  of  Coolangatta,  New  South  Wales,  whose  brother  Dr  Alexander 
Berry  had  been  a  student  at  the  university.  It  has  been  used  for  the  foundation  of 
the  Chair  of  English  Literature,  for  the  better  endowment  of  other  chairs,  for  the 
establishment  of  scholarships  and  other  purposes. 

*  Report  of  Commissioners,  p.  Iv. 


XXVI]  MEDICAL   DEGREES   OF   ST   ANDREWS  367 

limitation  by  ordaininc^  that  "the  power  of  St  Andrews  to 
confer  the  degrees  of  Bachelor  of  Medicine  and  Master  in 
Surgery  on  the  students  of  other  universities  should  be  discon- 
tinued'." They  also  refused  in  the  meantime  to  establish 
medical  professorships  in  St  Andrews-,  but  they  could  not 
prevent  the  University  Court  from  instituting  lectureships  by 
which  the  subjects  in  question  could  be  taught.  The  objections 
to  these  ordinances  were  discussed  by  counsel  before  the 
Universities'  Committee,  and  the  ordinances  were  approved 
by  the  Queen  in  council. 

With  reference  to  extra-mural  teaching  in  science  the 
commissioners  ordained  that  it  was  permissible  on  the  same 
grounds  as  extra-mural  teaching  in  medicine.  The  ordinance 
prescribes  that,  out  of  seven  courses  in  science,  three  might  be 
taken  outside  the  university  conferring  the  degree. 

Special  ordinances  were  needed  for  separate  universities. 
Thus  the  following  degrees  in  applied  science  were  granted. 

/;/  Glasgow. 

Bachelor  and  Doctor  of  Science  in  Engineering. 
Bachelor  of  Science  in  Agriculture. 

/;/  Aberdeen. 
Bachelor  of  Science  in  Agriculture. 

///  Edinburgh. 

Bachelor  of  Science  in  Agriculture. 

Bachelor  and  Doctor  of  Science  in  Public  Health. 

Bachelor  and  Doctor  of  Science  in  Engineering^ 

The  absence  of  a  properly  equipped  laboratory  caused  a 
degree  of  science  in  public  health  to  be  at  first  refused  to 
Glasgow,  but  it  was  subsequently  granted  for  all  the  four 
universities.  The  regulations  for  conferring  the  diploma  in 
public  health  approved  in  1892  and  revised  in  1897,  1901  and 
1902  are  very  stringent.     The  examination  is  written,  oral,  and 

^  Report  of  Commissioners,  p.  Ivi.  -  IbiJ.  p.  Ivii.  ^  JbiJ.  p.  xx. 


368  FOURTH    PERIOD.      UNIVERSITIES  [CH. 

practical.  It  is  divided  into  two  parts,  and  seems  to  cover  the 
whole  field  of  public  health.  Every  candidate  must  have  gradu- 
ated in  medicine,  and  have  attended  a  hospital  for  infectious 
diseases,  and  had  opportunity  for  studying  methods  of  adminis- 
tration. The  subjects  embraced  in  the  first  part  of  the  examina- 
tion are  physics,  engineering,  meteorology,  chemistry,  microscopy, 
and  bacteriology.  The  subjects  taken  up  in  the  second  part  are 
general  hygiene,  sanitary  law,  and  vital  statistics. 

Section  15  of  the  Act  of  1889  deals  with  the  extension  of 
universities  by  affiliation  of  new  colleges.  For  this  the 
commissioners  might  make  ordinances,  and  when  their  powers 
ceased  the  University  Court  might  do  so,  under  regulations  to  be 
laid  down  by  the  commissioners,  or  on  the  expiry  of  their  powers, 
by  the  Universities'  Committee.  The  conditions  to  be  satisfied 
are : 

( 1 )  That  the  University  Court  and  the  college  are  consenting 
parties. 

(2)  That  the  approval  of  the  commissioners  or  of  the 
Universities'  Committee  has  been  obtained. 

(3)  That  affiliation  may  be  terminated,  and  the  ordinance 
by  which  the  college  was  affiliated  rescinded  by  the  University 
Court,  subject  to  the  approval  of  the  Universities'  Committee. 

(4)  That  arrangements  must  be  made  for  due  representation 
of  the  University  Court  on  the  governing  bodies  of  affiliated 
colleges,  and  of  the  governing  bodies  of  affiliated  colleges  in  the 
University  Court. 

The  University  College  of  Dundee  having  satisfied  these 
conditions  was  affiliated  with  the  University  of  St  Andrews. 


XXYl]  MEDICAL   EDUCATION    IN    GLASGOW  369 


ST    MUNGO'S    COLLEGE,   GLASGOW. 

The  Glasgow  Royal  Infirmary  was  founded  by  Royal 
Charter  in  1791  and  was  opened  in  1794.  It  was  enlarged  from 
time  to  time  until  it  became  one  of  the  largest  hospitals  in  the 
empire.  At  present  it  is  undergoing  a  process  of  complete 
reconstruction.  In  1875  the  managers,  desirous  of  utilising  the 
opportunities  which  such  an  institution  could  offer  to  medical 
students,  organised  a  medical  school,  which  in  1899  was  incor- 
porated as  St  Mungo's  College.  The  accommodation  provided 
for  300  students,  includes  a  large  dissecting-room,  well-filled 
anatomical  and  pathological  museums,  and  fully  equipped 
laboratories  for  the  study  of  Chemistry,  Physiology,  Zoology, 
l^ithology.  Bacteriology  and  Hygiene.  In  addition  to  the 
subjects  usually  included  in  a  medical  curriculum  lectures  are 
given  in  Gynaecology,  Bacteriology,  Ophthalmology,  Psycho- 
logical Medicine,  &c.  The  teaching  staff  has  fourteen  professors, 
nine  lecturers  and  ten  assistants.  The  hospital  in  which  the 
students  receive  clinical  instruction  contains  nearly  600  beds, 
and  special  wards  are  set  apart  for  burns  and  for  throat, 
gynaecological  and  venereal  cases. 

During  the  course  of  a  year  some  7000  patients  are  treated 
in  the  wards  and  50,000  in  the  dispensary.  As  a  result  of 
deliberations  and  negotiations  between  the  University  Court  and 
the  managers,  it  is  highl}-  probable  that  the  professors  of  clinical 
medicine  and  clinical  surgery  in  St  Mungo's  College  will  also  be. 
professors  of  the  University  of  Glasgow,  and  that  by  this  means 
the  immense  clinical  material  available  for  teaching  purposes  will 
be  of  direct  service  to  students  aiming  at  university  degrees  in 
medicine  and  surgery. 

By  the  deed  of  constitution  of  St  Mungo's  College  the 
management  is  vested  in  a  body  of  governors  consisting  of 
president,  vice-president,  eight  i\v  officio  governors  and  seventeen 
elected  governors. 

K.  E.  24 


3/0  FOURTH    PERIOD.      UNIVERSITIES  [CH. 


HERIOT-VVATT  COLLEGE. 

Among  the  changes  effected  by  the  scheme  which  was 
obtained  by  the  Governors  of  George  Heriot's  Trust  in  1885  was 
the  taking  over  by  them  of  the  Watt  Institution  and  School  of 
Arts,  and  its  transformation  into  what  has  since  been  known  as 
the  Heriot-Watt  College. 

To  deal  in  detail  with  the  very  wide  field  covered  by  the 
Heriot-Watt  Calendar  would  quite  exceed  our  limits.  Further 
reference  to  the  scope  and  character  of  the  subjects  taught 
will  be  found  in  the  Appendix  iv  on  Technical  Education, 
p.  411.  It  has  therefore  been  necessary  to  restrict  our  remarks 
to  a  subject  which  is  one  of  the  most  interesting,  and,  from  its 
intimate  connexion  with  the  university,  most  important  of  the 
many  taught  in  the  Institution  over  which  Principal  Laurie  so 
worthily  and  efficiently  presides.     That  subject  is  Engineering. 

A  vacancy  was  created  in  the  Chair  of  Engineering  at 
Edinburgh  University  by  the  death  of  Professor  Armstrong  in  the 
autumn  of  1900.  The  patronage  of  this  chair  is  in  the  gift  of 
the  Crown. 

There  had  been  a  desire  for  some  years  to  co-ordinate  the 
means  of  instruction  in  engineering  given  in  the  university  and 
in  the  Heriot-Watt  College,  and  advantage  was  taken  of  the 
opportunity  which  had  now  arisen  to  formulate  a  scheme  for 
co-ordination,  and  in  the  meantime  no  appointment  was  made  to 
the  vacant  chair. 

A  Minute  of  Agreement  was  entered  into  between  the  Court 
of  the  University  of  Edinburgh  and  the  Governors  of  George 
Heriot's  Trust,  which  was  finally  adjusted  and  signed  by  both 
contracting  parties  in  June  1901. 

Under  this  Minute  of  Agreement,  for  the  purpose  of  arrang- 
ing a  joint  curriculum  of  study  for  a  Degree  in  Engineering 
Science,  and  for  co-ordinating  the  means  of  instruction  in 
Engineering  in  the  university  and  in  the  Heriot-Watt  College, 
with  a  view  to  such  a  degree  under  the  provisions  of  Ordinance 
No.  21  of  the  Scottish  Universities  Commissioners,  the  two 
governing  bodies  agreed  : 


XXVr]  THE   TEACHINf;   OF    ENGINEERINfi  37 1 

(i)  That  an  Advisory  Committee  should  be  appointed, 
consisting  of  the  following  members :  As  representing  the 
university,  the  Dean  of  the  Faculty  of  Science,  and  four 
Professors  of  the  university,  to  be  appointed  by  the  University 
Court ;  as  representing  George  Hcriot's  Trust,  four  Governors, 
one  of  whom  shall  be  the  convener  of  the  Heriot-Watt  College 
Committee,  and  the  Principal  of  the  Heriot-VVatt  College.  The 
convener  of  the  Committee  was  to  be  the  Dean  of  the  Faculty 
of  Science  of  the  university.  The  members  elected  by  the 
Governors  of  George  Heriot's  Trust  hold  office  for  one  year, 
and  are  eligible  for  re-election. 

(2)  The  duty  of  the  Advisory  Committee  shall  be  to  draw 
up  each  year  a  programme  for  a  joint  curriculum  of  study  and 
examination  for  a  degree  in  Engineering.  This  programme  of 
study  and  examination  to  be  submitted  each  year  to  the 
University  Court  and  to  the  Governors  of  George  Heriot's  Trust 
for  their  approval. 

(3)  The  Examiners  for  Degrees  in  Engineering  to  be,  as 
provided  by  Ordinance  No.  13,  the  Professors  in  the  university 
whose  subjects  qualify  for  graduation,  together  with  such 
lecturers  in  the  university  as  the  University  Court  may  from 
time  to  time  deem  necessary,  and,  in  order  to  keep  the  teaching 
in  the  Heriot-Watt  College  in  touch  with  the  range  and  standard 
of  examinations,  the  University  Court  shall  appoint  additional 
Examiners  from  the  Professors  and  Lecturers  of  the  Heriot-Watt 
College  whose  courses  have  been  duly  recognised  as  qualif)'ing 
for  a  degree  in  Engineering. 

(4)  The  Agreement  shall  not  involve  any  financial  responsi- 
bility of  either  contracting  party  towards  the  other. 

(5)  The  Agreement  ma)-  be  amended  from  time  in  time 
with  the  accordance  of  both  contracting  parties,  or  it  ma)-  be 
dissolved  at  the  instance  of  either  contracting  party,  due  regard 
being  had  to  the  interests  of  students  in  Engineering  who  shall 
have  begun  their  course  under  the  Agreement. 

In  accordance  with  this  Minute  of  Agreement  certain  classes 
in  the  Heriot-Watt  College,  including  Mathematics,  Mechanics, 
Ph)'sics,  and  Chemistry,  have  been  recognised  as  qualifying  for 
admission  to  the  First  Science  Examination  in  Engineering,  and 

24—2 


372  FOURTH    I'EKIoD.      UNIVERSITIES  [CH. 

certain  of  the  technical  classes  in  Engineering  have  been  similarly 
recognised  as  qualifying  for  the  Final  Science  Examination. 

The  Professor  of  Mechanical  Engineering,  and  the  Professor 
of  Electrical  Engineering  at  the  Heriot-Watt  College  have,  in 
accordance  with  clause  (3),  been  appointed  Examiners  in 
Engineering  and  in  Electrical  Engineering  respectively. 

The  instruction  in  the  Science  of  Engineering  has  been 
divided  to  a  considerable  extent  in  such  a  manner  between  the 
two  institutions  as  to  prevent  overlapping  of  teaching.  Purely 
Civil  Engineering  subjects  are  taught  exclusively  in  the  university, 
purely  Electrical  Engineering  subjects  are  taught  exclusively  in 
the  Heriot-Watt  College,  and  the  Mechanical  Engineering  is 
divided  between  the  two  institutions.  Higher  instruction  in 
Engineering  Science  has  thus  been  rendered  possible.  It  is 
■  obviously  impossible  for  any  one  man  to  attempt  to  deal  in  his 
lectures  with  all  the  modern  development  of  Engineering,  except 
in  the  most  elementary  fashion,  but,  by  this  division  of  work, 
each  of  the  three  Professors  is  enabled  to  devote  a  considerable 
portion  of  his  lecture-courses  to  the  more  advanced  branches  of 
Engineering  Science. 

Since  this  Agreement  was  entered  into  in  1901,  the  university 
has  built  and  equipped  a  large  new  block  of  buildings  for  its 
Engineering  School,  and  the  Governors  of  George  Heriot's 
Trust  have  built  large  new  Engineering  Laboratories.  In  both 
cases  the  equipment  in  machinery  and  appliances  in  these 
laboratories  has  been  so  arranged  that  there  has  been  no  useless 
expenditure  of  money  in  duplicating  equipment  in  the  two 
institutions.  The  new  University  Laboratories  have  been  almost 
entirely  devoted  to  machinery  and  appliances  in  connexion 
with  the  testing  of  materials  of  construction,  and  the  design  and 
testing  of  hydraulic  machinery  and  appliances,  while  the  new 
Heriot-Watt  College  Laboratories  have  been  largely  devoted  to 
a  complete  equipment  in  prime  movers  of  all  types — steam,  gas, 
oil,  petrol,  &c.,  with  the  necessary  boilers,  producers,  &c. 

No  difficulty  has  been  experienced  up  to  the  present  in 
working  in  a  thoroughly  satisfactory  fashion  this  scheme  of 
co-ordination  of  the  means  of  instruction  in  the  two  institutions, 
and  undoubtedly  the  Engineering  students  have  benefited  greatly 


XXVI]  ENGINEERING    AND    AGRICUT.TU  RE  373 

by    the   Agreement  which   was  entered   inttj  between   the   two 
institutions  in    1901. 

It  may  be  added,  that  there  is  in  the  College  an  extensive 
system  of  university  bursaries  suited  to  the  requirements  of  both 
da)-  and  evening  students. 


AGRICULTURAL   EDUCATION. 

The  Highland  and  Agricultural  Society  by  its  charter,  granted 
in  1850,  obtained  power  to  further  agricultural  education,  to 
conduct  examinations,  grant  diplomas  and  certificates,  and  to 
carry  on  experiments. 

It  contributed  for  many  years  ^^150  a  year  to  the  Chair  of 
Agriculture  in  Edinburgh  Universit)',  in  addition  to  awarding 
30  bursaries  of  values  ranging  from  £]0  to  ;^20,  and  other 
prizes.  In  later  years  when  a  lectureship  was  established  in 
agriculture  in  Glasgow  Technical  College,  an  additional  annual 
grant  of  ^150  was  made  to  assist  it. 

As  this  work  was,  later  on,  taken  up  by  the  Government  and 
County  Councils,  the  society  withdrew  its  assistance,  the  bursaries 
ceasing  in  1892. 

The  society  took  a  prominent  part  in  raising  funds  to 
found  the  Lectureship  in  Forestry  in  Edinburgh  University.  It 
still  assists  this  lectureship  with  an  annual  grant  of  ;^50  a  year, 
and  conducts  examinations  and  grants  certificates  in  forestry. 

For  many  years  the  society  conducted  examinations  and 
granted  qualifications  in  veterinary  science,  until  the  Royal 
College  of  Veterinary  Science  was  established  as  a  licensing 
body.  It  still  gives  silver  medals  for  the  best  students  in  the 
various  classes  of  the  Scottish  veterinar}'  colleges. 

The  society  assisted  in  the  establishment  of  the  Kilmarnock 
Dairy  School,  and  continues  to  give  an  annual  grant  of  /'icx) 
towards  its  maintenance.  Within  the  last  few  )ears  it  has 
contributed  ^800  towards  the  building  and  equipment  of  the 
agricultural  colleges  in   the  East  and   West  of  Scotland. 

For  many  years  the  society's  diplomas  and  certificates  were 
the    only    recognised    qualifications    in     agricultin-al    science    in 


374  FOURTH    PERIOD.      UNIVERSITIES  [CH. 

Scotland,  but  the  institution  of  university  degrees  and  college 
diplomas  has  modified  the  position,  and  in  1898  the  F'ellovvship 
of  the  Highland  and  Agricultural  Society  (F.H.  A.  S.)  was  merged 
in  the  National  Diploma  in  Agriculture(N.D.A.),the  examinations 
for  which  are  conducted  in  England  by  a  joint  board  consisting  of 
representatives  of  the  society  and  the  Royal  Agricultural  Society 
of  England.  The  joint  board  also  conducts  examinations  in 
both  countries  in  dairying  and  grants  the  National  Diploma  in 
Dairying  (N.D.D.). 

For  many  years  experimental  stations  for  the  improvement 
of  agriculture  were  maintained  at  considerable  expense  at 
Harelaw  and  Pumpherston,  but  were  abandoned  some  years 
ago,  and  experiments  conducted  on  farms  throughout  the  country 
will  probably  be  left  more  and  more  to  the  agricultural  colleges 
established  in  recent  years,  on  the  governing  boards  of  which 
the  society  is  represented. 


AGRICULTURAL   COLLEGES,    EDINBURGH 
AND    EAST   OF   SCOTLAND. 

In  1894  a  joint  board  of  representatives  of  the  Highland  and 
Agricultural  Society  and  the  University  Court  of  Edinburgh  was 
constituted  to  provide  for  further  instruction  in  agriculture  in 
Edinburgh,  and  on  a  grant  of  £6(y3  being  voted  by  Edinburgh 
Town  Council,  representatives  were  added  from  that  body,  and 
from  contributing  County  Councils.  This  board  obtained  grants 
from  the  Board  of  Agriculture  and  established  the  Edinburgh 
School  of  Rural  Economy,  which  carried  on  its  classes  in 
existing  institutions  and  made  a  beginning  with  extension  work 
in  the  counties. 

The  control  of  agricultural  education  in  Scotland  was  handed 
over  by  the  Board  of  Agriculture  to  the  Scotch  Education 
Department.  That  department  summoned  in  1901  a  conference 
of  representatives  from  the  various  County  Councils  in  the  South 
and  East  of  Scotland.  This  led  to  the  establishment  in  that  year 
of  the  Edinburgh  and  East  of  Scotland  College  of  Agriculture 
which  tofjk  over  the  work  of  the  School  of  Rural  Economy.    This 


XXVl]  TIIK   TKACIIINf;    OF   Af.RICULTURE  375 

college  has  an  income  of  over  ;i^4000  a  year,  and  in  a  few  years 
it  purchased  premises  in  George  Square,  which  were  reconstructed, 
extended  and  equipped  at  a  cost  of  over  ^^9000,  half  the  cost 
being  contributed  by  the  Scotch  Education  Department,  and 
the  other  half  by  the  associated  counties  (12  in  number),  the 
Carnegie  Trust,  the  Highland  and  Agricultural  Society,  landed 
proprietors  and  others  interested   in  agriculture. 

In  these  premises,  in  addition  to  class-rooms,  there  arc  fully 
equipi)ed  chemical,  biological  and  bacteriological  laboratories. 

In  addition  also  to  central  day  and  evening  classes  in  the 
sciences  associated  with  agriculture,  the  college  carries  on,  by 
means  of  a  special  staff,  systematic  courses  and  lectures  in  agricul- 
ture,horticulture, veterinary  science,  forestry,  and  poultry-keeping. 
Two  travelling  dairy  schools  are  maintained.  Experiments  in 
manuring,  sheep  and  cattle  feeding,  varieties  of  swedes  and 
potatoes,  and  dairying,  are  carried  on  at  various  centres  through- 
out the  area.  Fruit  demonstration  plots  have  been  laid  down 
at  convenient  centres.  Classes  have  also  been  conducted  for 
teachers  in  nature  knowledge  and  school  gardening. 

An  advisory  department  has  been  established  to  which 
farmers  may  apply  for  advice  in  any  points  of  difficulty  that 
may  arise  in  agricultural  practice. 

In  1905  arrangements  were  made  for  granting  a  College 
Diploma  (CD.  A.)  to  students  who  undergo  a  three  years'  course, 
and  pass  the  necessary  examinations.  This  diploma  is  endorsed 
by  the  Scotch  Education  Department. 

WEST   OF   SCOTLAND. 

The  West  of  Scotland  Agricultural  College  was  established 
in  Blythswood  Square,  Glasgow,  in  1899,  and  its  constitution 
is  similar  to  that  of  the  College  in  Edinburgh.  To  it  was 
transferred  the  Lectureship  in  Agriculture  formerly  conducted 
in  the  Technical  College. 

This  college  has  under  its  management  the  Dairy  School  for 
Scotland,  situated  at  Kilmarnock,  which  is  fully  equipped  with 
the  most  modern  equipment  for  instruction  in  dairying  and 
poultr\--keeping. 


3/6  Fourth  period,    universities  [cii. 

The  West  of  Scotland  College  grants  a  diploma  under 
conditions  similar  to  those  of  the  Edinburgh  College,  and  is 
making  arrangements  for  the  granting  of  a  special  diploma  in 
dairying  for  a  course  of  two  winter  sessions  at  an  agricultural 
college  and  four  months  at  Kilmarnock  Dairy  School. 


ABERDEEN  AND  NORTH  OF  SCOTLAND. 

The  Aberdeen  and  North  of  Scotland  College  of  Agriculture 
was  established  in  1904  with  a  constitution  similar  to  those  of 
the  other  two  Scottish  colleges. 

The  central  classes  of  this  college  are  conducted  in  the 
buildings  of  Marischal  College,  where  special  accommodation 
has  been  provided.  The  Fordyce  Lectureship  in  Agriculture 
(endowed)  is  included  in  the  course. 

The  university  grants  a  diploma  on  a  two  years'  course. 

The  extension  work  carried  on  is  on  similar  lines  to  that 
already  detailed  in  connection  with  the  Edinburgh  College. 

Several  of  the  classes  in  all  the  colleges  are  recognised  as 
qualifying  for  the  Degree  of  B.Sc.  in  Agriculture  granted  by  the 
university  at  each  centre. 

The  annual  expenditure  of  the  three  colleges  now  amounts 
to  about  ^14,000,  of  which  half  is  provided  by  the  Scotch 
Education  Department. 


The  end  of  our  task  is  now  in  view. 

In  dealing  with  a  subject  so  wide  as  that  of  the  four 
universities  the  omission  of  some  interesting  topics  is  inevitable. 
An  effort  has  been  made  to  take  up  more  or  less  fully  those  of 
prime  importance  in  connexion  with  the  Acts  of  1858  and  1889. 
We  have  seen  the  Senatus  invested  with  greater  powers, 
University  Courts  remodelled,  and  General  Councils  instituted, 
new  professorships  and  lectureships  founded,  preliminary  exami- 
nations established,  regulations  for  graduation  improved  in  the 
Faculties  of  Arts,  Science,  Medicine  and  Law  and  to  a  slight 
degree    in    Divinity,    post-graduate    study    encouraged    by    the 


XXVl]  SUMMARY   OF   THE    FOURTH    PERIOD  37/ 

roundin<;  of  Research  Scholarships  and  Fellowships,  bursaries, 
prizes  and  scholarships  rearranged  and  rendered  educationally 
more  effective.  We  have  seen  women  graduating  in  all  the 
Faculties  except  Law  and  Divinity,  the  salaries  and  pensions  of 
professors  put  upon  a  more  satisfactory  basis,  greater  facilities 
provided  by  the  operation  of  the  Carnegie  Trust  for  the  teaching 
of  Science,  Medicine,  Commercial  and  Technical  subjects,  and  a 
beginning  made  in  the  affiliation  of  extra-mural  colleges  to  the 
universities. 

More  might  be  added,  but  enough  has  perhaps  been  said  to 
testify  to  the  excellent  work  of  the  Commissioners  of  1858  and 
1889,  and  of  the  Scottish  universities  for  the  past  fifty  years. 

In  the  preceding  chapter  attention  was  directed  to  the 
almost  astounding  increase  of  difficulty  in  the  Leaving  Certificate 
examination  papers  in  recent  years.  Not  less  astonishing  is  the 
increase  of  difficulty  in  the  examinations  for  Entrance,  especially 
in  the  Faculties  of  Arts,  Science  and  Medicine.  It  will  be 
generally  admitted  that  the  standard  of  the  Arts  and  Science 
Preliminary  Examination  at  the  present  day  is  at  least  as  high 
as  the  standard  of  the  degree  examination  of  fifty  years  ago. 

It  will  be  seen  from  the  following  statistics  that  in  St 
Andrews  between  1893  and  1906  there  is  a  very  gratifying- 
increase  in  the  number  of  both  men  and  women  students.  In 
the  other  three  universities  the  number  of  matriculated  students 
of  both  sexes  between  the  same  13  years  is  considerably  smaller, 
though  there  is  an  increase  in  Glasgow  of  364,  in  Aberdeen  of 
1 80,  and  in  Edinburgh  of  325  women  students.  While  this 
decrease  in  the  number  of  men  students — due  largely  to  the 
establishment  of  the  new  universities  in  England  and  the 
Colonies — is  to  be  regretted,  it  is  matter  for  congratulation  that, 
notwithstanding  the  higher  pitch  of  examination,  the  number  of 
graduates  has  greatly  increased. 

Subjoined  are  statements  as  to  the  number  of  students, 
bursaries,  establishment  of  chairs  and  lectureships,  and  expen- 
diture on  additional  buildings  in  the  four  universities  since 
1889. 


578  FOURTH    PERIOD.      UNIVERSITIES  [CH. 


UNIVERSITY   OF   ST   ANDREWS. 
Number  of  Students. 


892—1893. 

Men 

W 

omen 

Total 

128 

20 

148 

19 

0 

19 

3 

0 

3 

27 

- 

0 

27 

177 

20 

197 

Arts 
Science 
Medicine 
Theology 


A  number  of  these  students  were  attending  classes  in   more  than 
one  faculty. 


1905- 

-1906. 

Men 

Women 

Total 

141 

III 

252 

... 

30 

6 

36 

... 

14 

3 

17 

... 

30 

I 

31 

Arts 
Science 
Medicine 
Theology 

215  121  336 

Deduct  students  attending  classes 

in  more  than  one  faculty    ...  17  2  19 


119  317 


Bursaries. 

1865 — 66  1906 — 07 

Presentation              ...              ...         54  63 

Competition             ...              ...          39  84 

93  147 


There  are  now  in  St  Andrews  147  bursaries  of  values  ranging  from 
;;^5  to  ^50.  More  than  half  are  open  to  unrestricted  competition. 
The  rest  are  presentation  or  preference  bursaries. 

Of  scholarships  there  are  five  of  ;^5o,  ten  of  ;^8o,  and  one 
of  ^150.     There  are  besides  money  prizes  of  which  two  of  ;^3o  each, 


xxvi] 


STATISTICS   OF   ST   ANDRFAVS    UNIVERSITY 


379 


a  Natural  History  prize  of  ^20,  and  in  alternate  years  a  Chancellor's 
prize  of  ;^2 1  arc  the  most  important.  In  llie  United  College  25 
bursaries  were  combined  mU)  14.  In  St  Mary's  College  15  bursaries 
were  combined  into  7. 


Chairs. 

1897     Berry  Chair  of  English  Literature. 

lyoi      Bute  Chair  of  Anatomy,  founded  by  the  late  Marquess  of  Bute 
who  assigned  ^20,000  for  the  purpose. 


Lectureships. 

I89I 

Botany. 

1892 

French. 

1895 

Anatomy  (1895 — 1901). 

1895 

Materia  Medica  (1895 — ^1899). 

1896 

History. 

1896 

Physiology  (1896 — 1908). 

1896 

Modern  Creek  (1896 — 1903). 

1900 

Political  Economy. 

1900 

Ancient  History  and  Political  Philosophy. 

1900 

Agriculture  and  Rural  Economy. 

1900 

German. 

1904 

Geology. 

1904 

Applied  Mathematics. 

1905 

Organic  Chemistry. 

1906 

Military  History. 

New  Buildings. 
1889 — 1906. 

I89I 

Extension  of  Library  Buildings 

^8000 

I89I 

Chemical  Teaching  Laboratory 

^2000 

1896 

Gatty  Marine  Laboratory 

^3057 

1899 

Bute  Medical  Buildings 

£^3°°° 

1900 

Physics  Laboratory  ... 

;^i6oo 

1906 

Chemical  Research  Laboratory 

;^9000 

1906 

Extension  of  L'nited  College  Buildings  ... 

^8250 

38o 


FOURTH    PERIOD.      UNIVERSITIES 


[CH. 


UNIVERSITY   OF  GLASGOW. 


Number  of  Students. 


1 892     93 

X 

1905 — 00 

Men 

Women 

Total 

Men 

Women 

Total 

Arts 

969 

83 

1052 

678 

433 

illl 

Science  (no  separate 
Sc.  Fac.  till  1893) 

265 

10 

275 

Medicine 

804 

56 

860 

656 

60 

716 

Theology 

... 

90 

90 

45 

45 

Law 

... 

205 
2068 

139 

205 
2207 

208 

503 

208 

1852 

2355 

The  noteworthy  points  in  the  above  are  the  decrease  of  men  and 
the  striking  increase  of  women  students,  the  decrease  in  candidates  for 
the  Church,  and  the  gratifying  advance  in  science  teaching.  The  de- 
crease of  medical  students  which  is  common  to  Glasgow,  Aberdeen 
and  Edinburgh  is  largely  to  be  accounted  for  by  the  opening  of  new 
medical  schools  in  Birmingham,  Yorkshire,  Lancashire  and  the 
("olonies. 


Bursaries. 


Presentation 
Competition 


1863—64 
64 
17 
81 


1906 — 07 

47 

407 

454 


A  comparison  of  the  figures  in  1863  and  1906  is  eminently 
satisfactory  in  respect  of  increase,  and  especially  in  the  extent  to 
which  competition  exceeds  presentation  in  the  award.  The  values 
range  from  ;^5  to  ^50.  'l"he  number  of  bursaries  founded  in  the 
various  Faculties  since  1889  is  140,  representing  an  annual  value 
of  ;^35i2.  Within  the  same  period  there  have  been  founded 
5  Scholarships  or  l-'ellowships  in  Arts,  5  in  Science,  and  2  in  Medicine, 
a  total  of  1 2  Scholarships  of  an  annual  value  of  jQ\  2 1  7. 


XXVI]  STATISTICS   OF   GLASGOW    UNIVERSITY  38 1 

Chairs. 
1893      History. 

1893      Pathology  (Lccturcshii)  had  existed  from  1890). 
1896     Political  Economy  (Lectureship  had  existed  from  1S92). 
1903     Geology.     (Previous  to  1903  the  Chair  of  Natural  History  com- 
prehended Geology.) 


Lectureships. 
1893     Physics. 

Previous  to  1893  these  three  subjects 

Q  I     •        J  were  included  under  the  Lectureship 

1893  jurisprudence  nir     t  .  i  r  1    ^  •       q,« 
o  T   i.        .•       1  T^  •     .    T       ,  on  Public  Law  established  in  loy.S, 

1894  International  Private  Law  ^        ,  ,      ,       ,      , 

o  T^  I  T     T   .         .•       IT  and  were  taught  by  the  lecturer  on 

1894     Public  International  Law        ,  ,  .  .  r 

that  subject.     A  separate  course  tor 

)    each  is  now  given. 

1894     Education. 

1894     Constitutional  Law  and  History.     (From   1878  a  short  course 

was  given  in  alternate  years,  but  in   1894  the  Lectureship 

was  placed  on  a  new  footing.) 
1894     Embryology. 
1894     Civil  or  Roman  Law. 

1894  Mercantile  Law. 

1895  French. 

1895  I^iseases  of  the  Ear. 

1895  Diseases  of  the  Throat  and  Nose. 

1S95  Electricity,  Pure  and  Applied. 

1897  (M'-Callum.)     Celtic. 

1898  Organic  Chemistry. 
1898  Electrical  Engineering. 

1898  Public  Health.     (Separate  subject   in   the   Faculty  of  Science, 

although  at   present   taught   by  the   Professor  of  Forensic 
Medicine.) 

1 899  German. 

1899  Metallurgical  Chemistry. 

1 90 1  (Ale.x.  Robertson.)     Apologetics. 

1901  British  History. 

190 1  ^Engineering,  Drawing  and  Design. 

1902  Italian. 


*  The  lectuios  on  these  subjects  form  part  of  the  ordinary  courses  in  Engineerinj;, 
Anatomy,  and  Physiology,  respectively,  and  stmlents  do  not  enrol  separately  for 
them. 


382 


FOURTH    PERIOD.      UNIVERSITIES 


[CH. 


1902     Mining. 
1902     Arabic. 

1904  Physical  Chemistry. 

1905  Political   Philosophy.     (A   short   course   has   been    given    since 

1900,  but  in   1905  the  Lectureship  was  placed  on  a  new 

footing.) 
1905     *Regional  Anatomy. 
1905     ^Physiology  of  Nerve  and  Muscle. 
1905      Physiological  Chemistry. 
1905     Evidence  and  Procedure. 


Queen  Margaret  College. 

At  Queen  Margaret  College,  in  which  the  instruction  provided  is 
exclusively  for  women,  separate  Lectureships  exist  in  the  following 
subjects  : 

Botany,    Chemistry,    Anatomy,    Materia    Medica,    Bacteriology, 
Surgery  and   Practice   of   Medicine,   Diseases  of   the    Eye, 
English,   Logic,   Moral  PhiIo.sophy,  Natural  Philosophy. 
In  subjects  other  than  those  mentioned  in  the  above  list  the  classes 
for  women  are  conducted  by  the  professors  and  their  assistants. 

In  session  1892 — 93  women  were  first  admitted  to  matriculation  as 
university  students. 


Department 

Engineering 

Botany 

Anatomy 

(Chemistry 

Natural  Philosophy  1 
Physiology  [ 

Materia  Medica 
Forensic  Medicine 
&  Public  Health, 

Surgical  Laboratory 


I. 

2. 

--» 

4- 


Buildings. 

Nature  of  building 

with  reference  to 

main  University  block 

Separate  (completed) 
Separate  (completed) 
Extension  (completed) 
Extension  (completed) 

Completed  and  inaugurated 
by  His  Royal  Highness  the 
Princeof  Wales  on  Ap.  23/07, 
Class-rooms,  &c.  ... 


Approximate 

actual  or 
estimated  cost 

^40,000 

^20,000 

^14,000 

Xl2,ooo 

^40,000 


^57,200 

;^I92,200 


*  The  lectures  on  these  subjects  form  pai  t  of  the  ordinary  courses  in  Engineering, 
Anatomy,  and  Physiology,  respectively,  and  students  do  not  enrol  separately  for 
them. 


XXVl]  QUEEN    MARGARET   COLLEGE,   GLASGOW  383 

To  meet  the  icciuircmcnts  that  huvu  arisen  from  the  growth  of 
experimental  and  practical  methods  of  teaching,  large  and  fully 
ecjuipped  laboratories  have  been  erected  for  many  departments, 
accompanied,  wherever  necessary,  by  new  class-rooms.  'J'he  accom- 
modation left  vacant  by  the  transfer  of  a  number  of  subjects  to  new 
premises  has  been  remodelled,  so  as  to  supply  suitable  accommodation 
for  other  departments  which  were  previously  inadequately  housed. 
The  outlay  incurred  in  adapting  existing  buildings  to  new  uses  was 
considerable,  but  a[)arl  from  this  a  sum  of  nearly  ^^200,000  has  been 
expended  within  the  last  eight  or  ten  years  in  i)roviding  .satisfactory 
ecjuipment  for  the  above-mentioned  departments. 


I 


UNIVERSITY   OF   ABERDEEN. 
Number  of  Students. 


1892—93 

1905 — 06 

375 

242 

165 

9 

76 

6 

408 

290 

9 

ly 

21 

46 

30 

857 

839 

Arts  :  Men 

Women 
Science  :  Men     . . . 

Women 
Medicine  :  Men 

Women 
Divinity 
Law 


What  is  striking  in  the  above  figures  is  that  the  number  of 
matriculated  students  in  1905^06  is  less  by  18  than  in  1S92 — 93, 
although  in  1905  no  fewer  than  180  women  students  are  added; 
that  the  students  oC  medicine  are  fewer  by  over  100,  and  that  there 
is  a  marked  increase  in  the  number  of  science  students.  The  S39 
in  1905 — 06  is  exclusive  of  41  new  students  in  the  summer  session 
who  had  not  matriculated  for  the  previous  winter  session. 

Bursaries. 

1864—65  1906—07 

Presentation  ...  ...  105  85 

Competition  ...  ...  i^^  200 


384 


FOURTH    PERIOD.      UNIVERSITIES 


[CH. 


It  is  satisfactory  to  note  the  increase  in  competition  and  the 
decrease  in  presentation  bursaries.  The  values  range  from  ^5  to  ^30. 
In  Divinity  there  are  two  of  ^50. 

The  number  of  bursaries  in  the  Faculties  of  Arts  and  Divinity  was 
reduced  by  18  and  11  respectively,  and  from  these  reductions  one 
scholarship  in  Arts  of  ^100,  and  in  the  Faculty  of  Divinity  two,  one 
of  ;^ioo  and  another  of  J^T^,  were  instituted.  The  number  of 
scholarships  and  money  prizes  is  about  40;  in  Arts  11,  of  values 
ranging  from  ^^30  to  ^200;  in  Science  6,  from  ^5  to  ^150;  in 
Divinity   11,   from   jQt,   to  ^^loo;    and    in    Medicine    13,   from   ^45 

to  ^ISO- 


Chairs. 

1893     English  Literature,  including"] 
Lowland  Scotch.  J 

1903     History  and  Archaeology. 


Founded  by 

John  (iray  Chalmers. 

[John  Burnett's  Trustees, 
(Mrs  Mary  Fletcher. 


Lectureships. 


1889  Natural  Theology. 

1892  Conveyancing. 

1893  Education. 
1893  French. 

T  894  Elocution. 

1896  Comparative  Psychology. 

1896  Agricultural  Chemistry. 

1896  Agricultural  Economics. 

1896  Engineering  Fieldwork. 

1897  Agricultural  Botany. 
1897  Agricultural  Entomology. 
1897  Veterinary  Hygiene. 

1897  Mathematics. 

1898  History. 

1899  Geology. 

1899  Political  Science. 

1899  Tropical  Medicine. 

1899  Physical  Training. 

1900  Physical  Chemistry. 
1902  Embryology. 


Founded  by 

Lord  Gifford. 


Rev.  William  Anderson,  LL.D. 


A.  P.  Fletcher. 


I 


XXVI]  STATISTICS   OF   ABKKIiKEN    UNIVERSITY  385 

1903  (Icrnian. 

1 903  Palaeography. 

1903  Civil  Law. 

1904  Agricultural  Bacteriology. 
1904  Political  Economy. 

1904  Procedure  and  Evidence.  John  Clark's  Trustees, 

1905  Creek  History. 

1905  Roman  History. 

1 906  Bacteriology. 
1906     Parasitology. 

1906  Statistical  Methods. 

1907  English  Language. 

1908  Comparative  Philology. 

1908  Constitutional  Law  and  History. 

1908  Public  International  Law. 

1908  Private  International  Law. 

1908  Jurisprudence. 

1 908  Forestry. 

1 908  Fisheries. 

King's  College  is  in  Old  Aberdeen,  and  there  almost  all  the  classes 
in  Arts  and  Divinity  are  taught.  The  buildings  comprise,  in  addition 
to  satisfactory  class-rooms,  the  Chapel  dating  from  1500,  Observatory, 
and  the  Ceneral  Library.  Adjoining  the  College  is  the  Recreation 
(Iround  managed  by  the  Students'  Athletic  Association. 

Of  the  original  buildings  of  Marischal  College  scarcely  a  fragment 
remains.  The  site  was  originally  the  residence  of  the  Grey  Friars. 
After  great  alterations  the  Chapel  which  alone  survived  was  used  as 
the  old  Cireyfriars'  Church  till  1903,  when  it  was  removed  to  make 
room  for  the  new  buildings.  The  foundation  stone  of  the  present 
buildings  was  laid  by  the  Chancellor,  the  then  Duke  of  Richmond, 
in   1837. 


Marischal  College   Extension. 

The  recent  extension  may  be  dated  from  1884,  in  whicli  year  the 
Senatus  started  the  movement  and  succeeded  in  getting  the  Board  of 
Works  to  erect,  as  an  instalment  of  the  extension,  the  buildings  that 
constitute  the  widening  of  the  South  Wing ;  or  it  may  be  dated  from 
1 89 1,  when,  on  the  representation  of  the  Senatus,  the  Court  took  the 
matter  up.  Between  these  dates  the  Government,  through  the  Board 
of  Works,  expended  over  ;^6ooo  on  new  buildings  at  Marischal  College, 
K,  E.  25 


386  FOURTH    TERIOD.      UNIVERSITIES  [CII. 

the  site  having  been  provided  by  the  Senatus,  which  was  then  the 
financial  authority  of  the  University.  The  Senatus  expended  part  of 
its  reserve  fund  in  acquiring  the  necessary  site,  but  it  carried  forward 
this  expenditure  in  its  accounts  as  an  asset  to  be  refunded  from  the 
subscriptions  to  be  obtained  from  the  public.  As  a  matter  of  fact, 
owing  to  these  subscriptions  being  found  later  to  be  inadequate  for 
the  work  in  hand,  the  University  Court,  some  time  after  1891,  being 
then  the  financial  body,  resolved  to  make  a  gift  of  this  asset  to  the 
building  fund,  and,  indeed,  went  further  and  transferred  the  whole 
reserve  fund  of  the  University — some  ;!^67i5,  including  the  cost  of 
the  site  mentioned — to  the  Executive  Committee.  In  any  statements 
hitherto,  it  has  been  usual  to  reckon  this  ^6715  as  part  of  the 
subscriptions  raised  since  the  extension  movement  came  under  the 
charge  of  the  Court. 

By  the  scheme  of  extension  very  large  additions  have  been  made 
to  the  Class-room,  Laboratory,  and  other  accommodation.  The  first 
portion,  including  the  Mitchell  Hall  and  Tower,  University  Union 
Rooms  and  Anatomical  Department,  was  inaugurated  in  1895.  The 
new  North  Wing  for  the  Departments  of  Botany,  Surgery,  Pathology 
and  Chemistry  was  opened  in  1896.  The  North  Tower,  containing 
Law  Class-room,  Zoological  Laboratory,  Secretarial  Rooms,  was  opened 
in  1897.  The  South  Wing,  for  the  Department  of  Natural  Philosophy, 
was  completed  in  1898,  and  the  new  West  Front  for  the  Science  and 
Law  Libraries  and  the  Departments  of  Physiology,  Medicine,  Geology 
and  Agriculture,  completed  in  1906,  was  inaugurated  by  King  Edward 
on  25th  September. 


xxvi]        TiiK  i:xtp:nsion  of  marischal  college 


387 


The  subscri[)tions  for  the  extensions  may  be  stated  thus 


1884—1891 

H.M.  Government.     (Board  of  Works.) 
1891—1905 

H.M.  Government.     (Treasury.) 
Aberdeen  Town  Council : 

(a)     Money  Vote  p^  10,000 

(fi)     Sites  ;^  1 1,865 

(c)     Rebuilding  of  Greyfriars  Church      ^12,080 


over  ;^6,ooo 

;^40,000 


University  of  Aberdeen 
Charles  Mitchell,  Esq.,LL.D.,  of  Jesmond 
Towers,  Newcastle : 

(a)     Ordinary  subscription 
{/>)     Special  subscription 


^1,000 
;^2o,ooo 


(Dr  Mitchell  also  paid  for  the  large  heraldic  window 
in  the  Mitchell  Hall,  costing,  it  is  believed,  over 
;^2,ooo.  He  further  contributed  for  completion 
of  south  wing  and  extinction  of  debt  on  the 
extension  scheme.) 
Lord  Strathcona  and  Mount-Royal : 

(a)     Subscription  ;!^2  5,000 

(d)     Interest  to  November,  1905  ^2,883 


Other  Subscribers 


^^33,945 
^6,715 


^21,000 


^27,171 


^27,883 
^65,128 

;^22i,842 


If  the  ^6,000  expended  by  the  Board  of  Works  is  added,  the  total 
is  increased  to  ;^2 28,000. 

The  University  may  well  congratulate  itself  in  having  succeeded  in 
raising  nearly  a  quarter  of  a  million  within  a  few  years  for  the  extension 
of  its  buildings.  Now  completed  the  whole  pile  of  Marischal  College 
forms  the  second  largest  granite  building  in  the  world — the  largest 
being  the  Escurial  in  Spain — and  in  respect  of  beauty  of  execution 
may  confidently  challenge  comparison  with  Truro  Cathedral,  another 
granite  structure,  or  any  other  granite  elevation  in  Britain. 


25—2 


?88 


FOURTH    PERIOD.      UNIVERSITIES 


[CII. 


UNIVERSITY   OF   EDINBURGH. 
Number  of  Students. 


1892—9.^ 

1 905 — 06 

Arts :  Men 

889 

632 

Women 

70 

338 

Science:  Men     ... 

no  separate 

281 

Women 

Faculty  then 

9 

Medicine  :   Men 

1736 

1451 

Women 

— 

31 

Divinity 

80 

53 

Law 

452 

326 

Music  :  Men 

9 

Women 

— 

17 

3227 

3147 

We  thus  find  that  the  number  of  students  in  Arts,  Science  and 
Medicine  in  1892 — 93  was  2695,  and  in  1905 — 06  the  number  was 
2742,  being  a  total  increase  of  47  upon  2695.  This  increase  is  due 
to  308  women  students  additional,  and  the  disappearance  of  261  men, 
a  reduction  of  men  by  10  per  cent. 


Bursaries. 

1865—64 
Presentation  ...  ...  21 

Competition       "...  ...  59 

Values  ranging  from  ^8  to  ^76. 


1906 — 07 
16 
310 


Scholarships. 

1863 — 64  1906 — 07 

Presentation              ...              ...              2  — 

Competition             ...             ...            10  iii 

Values  ranging  from  /^i^  to  ^150. 


Fellowships  and  Endowments  for  Research. 

1863 — 64  1906 — 07 
Presentation              ...              ...           —  — 

Competition  ...  ...  —  19 

Values  ranging  from  ^52  to  ;^i40. 


XXVl]  STATISTICS   OF   EDINRURCIi    UNIVKRSITY  389 

Prizes. 

1906 — 07 
Arts         ...  ...  ...  ■   ...  ...  9 

Divinity  ...  ...  ...  ...  12 

Law        ...  ...  ...  ...  ...  2 

Medicine  ...  ...  ...  ...  23 

In  cases  where  a  prize  is  open  in  more  than  one  I'aculty  it  has  been 
included  in  the  l-'aculty  first  mentioned. 

Here  as  in  the  other  Universities  there  is  a  satisfactory  increase  of 
competition  and  decrease  of  presentation  bursaries.  The  approximate 
number  in  the  various  Faculties  is  in  Arts  217,  in  Divinity  45,  in 
Medicine  56,  and  in  Law  8.  The  number  of  Scholarships,  Fellowships, 
and  Endowments  for  Research  is  142,  thus  distributed:  in  Arts  60,  in 
Science  20,  in  Divinity  14,  in  Law  9,  in  Medicine  ;i^,  in  Music  i  ;  and 
in  Endowments  for  Research  5.  All  are  of  substantial  and  .some  of 
very  considerable  value,  being  represented  by  three  figures.  The 
number  of  post-graduate  Scholarships  is  greater  than  in  the  other 
Universities,  but  there  are  not  so  many  of  tempting  value  as  in 
Glasgow. 

Chairs. 

1893  Chair  of  History  (additional  to  the  already  existing  Chair  of 
History)  was  instituted  by  the   University  Commissioners. 

1898  Chair  of  Public  Health  was  instituted  by  Ordinance  of  the 
Commissioners.  The  late  Alexander  Low  Bruce,  Esq., 
bequeathed  ;^5ooo  for  the  purpose  of  assisting  to  endow 
it.  Donations  in  supplement  to  the  said  bequest  were 
received  by  the  University  Court  from  Mrs  Livingstone 
Bruce,  Sir  John  Usher,  Bart.,  and  others,  amounting  to 
over  ;^io,ooo. 

1901  Chair  of  Ancient  History  and  Palaeography.  Instituted  by 
Ordinance  of  the  University  Court.  Sir  William  Fraser, 
K.C.B.,  betjueathed  ;;^25,ooo  for  the  purpose  of  founding 
and  endowing  this  Chair,  to  be  called  the  Sir  William 
Fra.ser  Professorship. 

Lectureships. 

1892  Rhetoric  and  English  Literature. 

1892  Latin. 

1892  Greek. 

1892  Mathematics. 

1892  Natural  Philosophy. 

1892  Applied  Mathematics. 


390  FOURTH    PERIOD.      UNIVERSITIES  [CH. 

1892  Logic  and  Metaphysics. 

1892  Moral  Philosophy. 

1894  French  Language  and  Literature  and  Romance  Philology. 

1894  German  Language  and  Literature  and  Teutonic  Philology. 

1894  Chemistry.     (Three  Lectureships.) 

1894  Mineralogy  and  Crystallography. 

1894  Pathology. 

1894  Plant  Physiology. 

1894  Agricultural  Chemistry. 

1894  International  Private  Law. 

1894  Experimental  Pharmacology. 

1894  Anatomy. 

1894  Pathological  Bacteriology. 

1895  Engineering  Drawing. 

1897  Diseases  of  the  Larynx,  Ear  and  Nose. 

1898  Diseases  of  Tropical  Climates. 

1898  Clinical  Instruction  in  Diseases  of  the  Skin. 

1900  History.     (Endowment  provided  by  Sheriff  yEneas  Mackay.) 

1901  Ancient  History:    Greek  and  Roman.     (Endowment  provided 

by  the  Sir  William  Eraser  Trust.) 

1 90 1  Economic  History. 

1 90 1  Invertebrate  Zoology. 

1902  Histology. 

1902  Chemical  Physiology. 

1902  Experimental  Physiology. 

1903  Mathematics.     (Second  Lectureship.) 
1903  Astronomy,  Advanced. 

1903  Applied  Anatomy. 

1904  Military  Subjects. 
1904  Administrative  Law. 
1904  Infective  Fevers. 

1904  Practical  Application  of  x^naesthetics. 

1905  Mathematics.     (Third  Lectureship.) 

1906  Psychology. 

1906  Economic  History. 

1906  Experimental  Engineering. 

1906  Systematic  and  Clinical  Gynaecology. 

1907  Statistics  and  Mathematical  Economics. 

1907  Apologetics. 

1908  Geography. 

1908  Botany  for  Arts  students. 

1908  Forest  Botany. 


XXVl]    NEW  LECTURESHIPS  AND  BUILDINGS  OF  EDINBURGH    39I 


Note  of  the  amount  of  expenditure  in  connection 
with   New   Buildings  since   1889. 

£         s.     d.  £  s.    d. 

McEwan  Hall,  cost  including  site  115,000     o     o 

The  John  Usher  Institute  of  ruhlic 

Health,  cost  over  21,000     o     o 

Hughes     Bennett     Laboratory    for 

Physiological  Research,  cost  2990     o     o 

Pathology  Department.  Extension 
in  connection  with  the  teaching 
of    Pathological    Bacteriology, 

cost  2597   18     4 

Physiology  1  )epartnient — Extension, 

cost  1 163     3     9 

Chemical   Department — Extension, 

cost  3 '75    18     I 

Shelter  for  Servitors,  Outhouses  and 
Photographic    Studio    at    New 

Buildings  1744   t6     3 

New  Engineering  and  Physical  La- 
boratories. 

Cost  of  site  and  buildings 
thereon  at  High  School 
Yards  15,000     o     o 

Cost  of  reconstructing  the 
said  buildings  to  the 
purposes  of  the  Engi- 
neering Department  i5>599  i  6 
Do.  of  the  Physical  Depart- 
ment                                    25,282     5     3 

55.881     6     9 

^203,55;,     ,^     2 


APPENDIX    I 


PRIMARY   SCHOOLS. 


(By  John  Watson,  B.A.  (Lond.),  Headmaster  of  Bioughton 
Higher  Grade  School,  Edinburgh.) 

School  Premises,  1873 — 1907. 

Nothing  can  more  strikingly  show  the  inadequacy  of  the  school 
premises  in  1872  than  the  fact  that  in  34  years  (1873 — 1907)  the 
School  Boards  of  Scotland  spent  upwards  of  ten  and  a  half  million 
pounds  on  the  erecting,  enlarging  and  improving  of  school  buildings. 
Of  this  vast  sum  ^578,000  was  contributed  from  the  imperial  funds: 
the  rest  was  from  the  local  rates,  on  which  ;^5, 740,000  yet  remain  as 
a  burden.  The  building  activity  still  (1908)  continues;  but  it  takes 
the  form  of  providing  Higher  Grade  and  Supplementary  Schools,  and 
of  improving  existing  buildings,  providing  shelter-sheds,  supplying  pure 
water,  improving  lavatories,  and,  generally  speaking,  making  the  schools 
more  comfortable  and  more  in  accordance  with  modern  educational 
and  sanitary  requirements.  In  such  directions,  as  well  as  in  providing 
for  the  natural  increase  of  the  population,  and  for  the  shifting — especially 
in  mining  districts — from  one  industrial  centre  to  another,  building  is 
likely  to  continue  for  some  time  to  come.  In  it  there  seems  to  be  no 
finality.  It  has  not  been  confined  to  School  Boards.  The  Roman 
Catholic  Schools  in  Scotland  in  1872  numbered  22;  in  1907  there 
were  208. 

Accommodation  and  Staff. 

The  Schools  under  inspection  in  1872  had  room  for  281,688 
scholars.  In  1907  accommodation  was  provided  for  well  over  a  million. 
In  the  .same  year  the  army  of  Scottish  teachers  was  21,220  strong,  of 
whom  over  15,000  were  trained;  2,614  untrained;  and  3,585  Juveniles 
(Pupil  Teachers).  A  comparison  with  1906  shows  a  remarkable 
change  in  the  composition  of  this  force.  The  trained  teachers  had 
increased  by  835 ;  whilst  the  untrained  and  I'upil  Teachers  had  decreased 


PRIMARY   SCHOOLS  393 

by  1 80  and  738  respectively.  Since  then  the  diminution  in  the  number 
of  Pupil  Teachers  employed  has  been  greatly  accelerated.  Many  of 
the  larger  Boards,  such  as  Edinburgh,  Glasgow,  Dundee  and  Aberdeen, 
have  ceased  to  employ  them,  and  smaller  Boards  have  not  been  slow  to 
follow  their  example.  The  system  is  doomed.  The  day  appears  to  be 
at  hand  when  only  trained,  adult  teachers  will  be  employed  in  our 
Scottish  Schools. 

Changes  in  the  Type  of  Education. 

'i"he  type  of  education  in  recent  years  has  been  gradually  changing. 
There  is  less  striving  after  mechanical  accuracy.  (Greater  efforts  are 
being  made  to  render  the  pupils  intelligent  and  self-reliant.  In  arith- 
metic, for  instance,  long  sums  are  discarded  ;  but  much  time  is  devoted 
to  mental  arithmetic  and  to  the  working  of  short  sums  of  a  practical 
nature.  The  time  allotted  to  Parsing  has  been  greatly  reduced.  The 
teaching  of  Composition  has  vastly  improved. 

Promotion. 

Promotion  is  no  longer  a  yearly  occurrence — regulated  by  H.M. 
Inspector's  visit — for  duxes  and  dunces  alike.  Bright  pupils  may  be 
advanced  at  any  period  of  the  year.  Many  schools  aim  at  bridging  the 
gulf  between  the  Infant  Department  and  the  Qualifying  Examination 
in  five  years.  Under  the  old  regime  the  normal  period  for  doing  this 
would  have  been  six  years.  H.M.  Inspectors,  as  a  rule,  favour  the 
shortened  time.  Children  of  more  than  average  ability  can  easily  do  it : 
those  with  less  should  not  attempt  it. 

Dl.SCIPI.INE. 

This  has  assumed  a  kindlier  aspect.  Mutual  confidence  between 
teacher  and  pupil  is  very  common,  and  will  probably  become  more  so 
as  the  size  of  classes  is  reduced,  and  other  conditions  of  teaching  are 
made  more  favourable. 

Defective  Children. 

By  the  Act  of  1890  provision  was  made  for  the  instruction  of  blind, 
and  deaf-mute  children  ;  and  powers  were  given  to  School  Boards  by 
the  Education  of  Defective  Children  (Scotland)  Act  (1906)  to  deal 
with  children  who  are  epileptic,  crippled,  or  defective.  Some  of  the 
larger  School  Boards  have  made  profitable  use  of  these  powers. 


394  APPENDIX   I 


Education  (Scotland)  Act,  1908. 

The  educational  event  of  1908  was  the  passing  of  the  long-looked- 
for  Education  (Scotland)  Act,  which  came  into  force  on  the  ist  of 
January,  1909.  Many  of  the  defects  of  the  old  system,  notably  cumu- 
lative voting,  '  small  areas,'  the  lack  of  correlation  between  the  various 
classes  of  schools,  and  the  inequalities  of  rating  in  different  districts, 
have  been  allowed  to  remain.  The  time  available  was  too  limited  for 
the  discussion  of  such  controversial  subjects.  Much,  however,  has  been 
done.  The  physical  welfare  of  the  children  occupies  a  prominent  place. 
School  Boards  may  provide  for  the  accommodation,  equipment,  apparatus 
and  service  for  preparing  and  supplying  meals  to  them  ;  but  the  cost  of 
the  food  itself  (except  in  special  cases)  must  either  be  met  by  the 
parents  or  defrayed  by  voluntary  contributions.  Where  necessary, 
clothing  also  may  be  supplied  ;  and  parents  who  through  neglect  or 
carelessness  send  their  children  to  school  in  a  filthy  or  verminous 
condition,  may  be  prosecuted.  Agencies  may  be  established  and 
maintained  for  collecting  and  distributing  information  as  to  employ- 
ments open  to  children  when  they  leave  school.  School  Boards  may, 
and — when  required  by  the  Department — shall  provide  for  the  medical 
inspection  and  supervision  of  the  pupils  in  their  districts,  one-half  of 
the  cost  being  paid  out  of  the  district  education  fund.  Parents  are 
required  to  provide  efficient  education  for  their  children  between  the 
ages  of  5  and  14  years.  The  dates  of  entering  and  leaving  school, 
however,  may  not  coincide  with  the  birthdays  of  the  pupils.  Power  has 
been  conferred  on  School  Boards  to  prescribe  two  or  more  dates  per 
year  at  which  scholars  may  be  admitted  to  school  or  leave  it,  and  pupils 
must  be  enrolled  on  the  prescribed  date  succeeding  the  fifth  anniversary 
of  their  birthday,  and  must  not  leave  (unless  exempted  by  the  Board) 
before  the  prescribed  date  after  they  have  reached  the  age  of  fourteen. 


Continuation  Classics. 

For  young  persons  above  that  age  suitable  provision  shall  be  made 
in  day  or  evening  continuation  classes  or  in  both  for  physical  training 
and  for  instruction  in  the  laws  of  health  and  in  the  crafts  and  industries 
practised  in  the  district.  School  Boards  have  the  power  to  make 
bye-laws  to  enforce  attendance  at  these  classes  up  to,  but  not  beyond, 
the  age  of  seventeen. 


PRIMARY    SCHOOLS  395 


Tenure  of  Office  and  Pensions. 

The  position  of  the  teachers  has  been  distinctly  improved  by  the 
Act.  The  right  of  appeal  to  the  Department  in  the  case  of  dismissal 
gives  them  greater  security  of  tenure.  The  repeal  of  the  restriction  to 
grant  retiring  allowances  imposed  on  School  Boards  by  the  Elementary 
School  Teachers'  (Superannuation)  Act,  1898,  is  in  itself  a  great 
gain.  But  the  greatest  is  the  prospect  of  a  satisfactory  solution  of  the 
superannuation  problem  for  teachers  in  all  classes  of  schools.  The 
Department  has  been  instructed  to  prepare  a  Superannuation  Scheme 
a{)plicable  to  teachers  and  to  constitute  and  administer  a  Superannuation 
Fund  for  Scottish  teachers,  which  fund  shall  consist  of  six  per  cent,  of 
the  teachers'  yearly  salaries  (four  per  cent,  payable  by  teachers  and  two 
per  cent,  by  School  Boards)  with  an  additional  yearly  sum  payable  from 
what  is  henceforth  to  be  known  as  the  Education  (Scotland)  linui. 
The  retiring  allowances  to  teachers  are  to  be  in  proportion  to  their 
salaries  and  length  of  service. 

The  Education  (Scotland)  Fund  just  referred  to,  shall  consist  of 
nearly  all  sums  payable  for  education  in  Scotland  except  university 
grants,  the  school  grants  under  the  Code,  and  a  fee  grant  of  twelve 
shillings  per  child  in  average  attendance  at  non-fee-paying  schools.  It 
is  to  be  distributed  by  the  Department  and  not  by  local  bodies.  The 
Fund  is  to  be  applied  to  providing  for  the  expenses  of  inspection  of 
intermediate  and  secondary  schools,  to  payments  to  the  Universities 
and  central  institutions  such  as  Technical,  Agricultural  and  Art  Colleges, 
to  IVovincial  (Jommittees  for  the  Training  of  Teachers,  and  to  the 
Superannuation   Fund  already  mentioned. 


District  Education  Funds. 

The  balance  is  to  be  allocated  for  education  in  districts  under  local 
management,  and  is  to  be  known  as  'The  District  Education  Fund.' 
From  it  payments  are  to  be  made  to  School  Boards  and  other  governing 
bodies  for  pupils  attending  Intermediate  or  Secondary  Schools  within 
their  districts  but  residing  outwith  them  ;  and  bursaries  are  to  be 
provided  to  enable  duly  qualified  pupils  to  obtain  education  at  approved 
supplementary  courses,  Intermediate  and  Secondary  Schools,  Training 
Centres,  Agricultural,  Technical,  and  Training  Colleges,  and  the 
Universities. 

The  Act  of  1872  provided  specially  for  children  of  average  strength 
and  ability;   the  Act  of  190S  descends  farther  and  soars   higher.      It 


396  APPENDIX    II 

cares,  on  the  one  hand,  for  the  feeble  in  mind  or  body  as  well  as  for  the 
hungry  and  the  naked  ;  and,  on  the  other,  for  the  strong  in  intellect 
who  promise  to  become  captains  of  industry,  or  leaders  in  the  world  of 
Commerce,  Science,  Art,  Literature,  or  Thought.  If  it  is  carried  out  in 
the  spirit  in  which  it  has  been  conceived  no  Scottish  lad  of  '  pregnant 
pairts  '  need  lack  his  opportunity. 

It  may  be  added  that  the  School  Boards  elected  since  the  passing 
of  the  Act  of  1908  have  entered  on  their  new  duties  in  a  most  praise- 
worthy spirit.  They  have  fixed  dates  for  entering  and  leaving  school, 
made  arrangements  for  the  appointment  of  medical  officers,  and,  as  a 
rule,  granted  additional  allowances  to  teachers  who  had  retired  under 
the  Superannuation  Act  of  1898. 


APPENDIX    II 

THE  SYSTEM  OF  TRAINING  TEACHERS  INSTITUTED 
BY  THE  MINUTE  OF  THE  SCOTCH  EDUCATION 
DEPARTMENT   OF   30TH   JANUARY    1905. 

(By  I)r  Morgan,  Principal  of  Edinburgh  Provincial  IVaining  College.) 

The  system  of  training  teachers  in  Scotland  underwent  great 
modification  and  extension  as  the  result  of  a  Minute  issued  by  the 
Scotch  Education  Department  on  30th  January,  1905.  The  method  of 
training  in  operation  prior  to  that  date  had  done  valuable  service  to 
the  country,  but  it  had  several  obvious  defects.  While  the  organisation 
of  the  elementary  school  system  was  on  a  national  basis  the  training 
of  teachers  was  almost  entirely  in  the  hands  of  the  Churches;  the 
Universities  and  the  elementary  and  secondary  school  authorities  had 
no  representation  in  the  Managing  Committees  of  the  Church  Training 
Colleges ;  the  output  of  trained  teachers  was  insufficient  for  the  wants 
of  the  country' ;  and  there  was  no  provision  made  for  the  professional 
training  of  Secondary  Teachers  and  Teachers  of  Special  Subjects  such  as 
Drawing,    Manual  Work,   Domestic  Science,   &c.     To   remedy   these 

1  The  annual  output  of  trained  teachers  from  all  the  Training  Colleges  and  Khig's 
Student  Centres  in  1905  was  about  700,  leaving  a  deficit  of  about  400  to  be  fdled 
from  the  ranks  of  untrained  teachers— chiefly  ex-I'upil  Teachers  and  Acting 
Teachers. 


THE   TRAINING   OK   TEACHERS  397 

defects  the  Minute  provided  for  the  establishment  of  four  Provincial 
Committees  for  the  Training  of  Teachers  in  connection  with  the 
Universities  of  St  Andrews,  Glasgow,  Aberdeen,  and  I":dinl)urgh.  Each 
Committee  was  to  look  after  the  training  of  teachers  of  all  grades  in  its 
own  Province.  Thus  the  'sphere  of  influence'  of  the  St  Andrews 
Provincial  Committee  was  to  extend  from  the  counties  of  Fife  and 
Forfar  in  the  east  to  Perth  and  Stirling  in  the  west ;  of  Glasgow 
Provincial  Committee  from  Inverness  in  the  north  to  Dumfries  in  the 
south,  and  from  Perth  and  Stirling  in  the  east  to  Argyle  in  the  west ;  of 
Aberdeen  Committee  from  Shetland  in  the  north  to  Forfar  in  the 
south,  and  from  Aberdeen  in  the  east  to  Ross  and  Inverness  in  the 
west ;  of  Edinburgh  Committee  from  Fife  in  the  north  to  Dumfries  in 
the  south,  and  from  Berwick  in  the  east  to  Stirling  in  the  west.  The 
Minute  laid  down  precise  rules  regarding  the  constitution  of  each 
Provincial  Committee,  a  certain  number  of  members  being  elected  by 
the  Court  of  the  University,  by  the  Governors  of  each  of  the  Technical 
Institutions  in  the  Province,  and  by  the  Secondary  Education  Com- 
mittees and  the  Managers  of  the  Secondary  Schools  in  the  area.  Each 
Provincial  Committee  was  to  be  completed  by  the  addition  of  a  certain 
number  of  co-opted  members  representing  the  teachers  in  the  Province, 
and  any  Church  or  Denomination  transferring  its  Training  College  to 
the  Provincial  Committee. 

'I'he  functions  and  powers  of  the  Committees  thus  constituted  were 
defined  in  a  series  of  highly  important  regulations  entitled  "  Regulations 
for  the  Preliminary  Education,  Training,  and  Certification  of  Teachers 
for  Various  Grades  of  Schools."  The  Regulations  after  careful  considera- 
tion in  draft  form  by  the  Provincial  Committees  themselves  and  other 
bodies  interested  in  the  training  of  teachers,  were  laid  on  the  table  of 
the  House  of  Commons  on  7th  June,  1906,  and  came  into  operation  a 
month  later. 

The  details  of  the  Regulations  are  somewhat  complicated  but  the 
following  is  a  brief  analysis  of  their  chief  provisions  : — 

Arrangements  are  made  for  the  training  of  Primary  Teachers, 
Secondary  Teachers,  and  Teachers  of  Special  Subjects. 


I.     Pkimarv  Tkaciieks. 

The  education  and  training  of  Primary  Teachers  are  to  be  given  in 
two  distinct  stages— the  Pupil  Teacher  or  Junior  Student  Stage,  and  the 
Senior  Student  Stage.  Nothing  need  be  said  here  regarding  the  Pupil 
Teacher  System. 


398  APPENDIX    TI 

1.  Junior  Students. 

(a)     General  Education. 

Candidates  for  admission  to  Junior  Studentship  must  have  received 
instruction  according  to  an  approved  curriculum  in  a  Higher  Grade 
School,  or  a  Higher  Class  School,  or  in  a  School  accepted  by  the 
Department  as  satisfactory  for  the  purpose ;  and  they  must  have 
obtained  the  Intermediate  Certificate.  Junior  Students  must  therefore 
be  15  years  of  age,  and  the  normal  duration  of  their  course  is  three  years. 
During  this  time  they  must  receive  instruction,  according  to  a  curriculum 
approved  by  the  Department,  in  English  and  one  other  language, 
History,  Geography,  Mathematics,  Experimental  Science,  Drawing, 
Physical  Exercises,  Music.  Instruction  may  also  be  given  to  certain 
students  in  Woodwork  or  Needlework  and  the  Domestic  Arts,  or 
School  Gardening.  At  the  conclusion  of  their  course  all  Junior 
Students  must  be  presented  at  the  Leaving  Certificate  Examination 
for  examination  in  such  subjects  of  the  approved  curriculum  as  the 
Department  may  have  previously  determined. 

{b)     Practical  Skill. 

During  their  course  each  Junior  Student  must  undergo  systematic 
training  in  the  art  of  teaching  each  of  the  Primary  School  subjects. 

Those  who  complete  their  course  to  the  satisfaction  of  the  Depart- 
ment in  respect  of  {a)  and  {b\  and  who  obtain  from  the  principal  teacher 
of  the  Centre  a  satisfactory  report  regarding  their  character,  conduct, 
bearing  and  manner  of  speech,  are  awarded  a  certificate  (The  Junior 
Student  Certificate)  giving  full  details  regarding  their  attainments. 

2.  Senior  Students. 

The  candidate  next  becomes  a  Senior  Student  and  undergoes  a 
further  course  of  education  and  professional  training  which  extends 
normally  over  not  less  than  two  years,  except  in  the  case  of  Graduates, 
Untrained  Certificated  Teachers,  and  Provisionally  Certificated  Teachers, 
who  may  be  admitted  to  a  one-year  course  of  training. 

(rt)  General  Education. 
A  condition  of  admission  is  that  the  candidate  possess  the  Junior 
Student  Certificate,  the  Leaving  Certificate,  or  produce  evidence 
satisfactory  to  the  Department  of  having  undergone  an  equivalent  course 
of  instruction.  The  Senior  Student  may  continue  to  study  the  subjects 
of  general  education  stated  above  for  Junior  Students,  and  the 
authorities  of  the  Training  Centre  may  allow  students  to  attend  any 
University  classes,  or  classes  in  a  School  of  Art,  a  Technical  College, 


THE   TRAININC;   OF   TEACHERS  399 

Agricultural  College,  or  College  of  Domestic  Science,  for  which  they 
are  (lualified  and  which  may  be  useful  to  them  in  their  future  work  as 
teachers.  Thus,  while  i)rofessional  training  is  the  first  and  chief  concern 
of  the  Training  Centre,  (jualified  students  are  given  every  facility  for 
making  a  higher  and  more  concentrated  study  of  general  subjects. 

{l>)     Professional  Education. 

According  to  the  Regulations  provision  must  be  made  at  the 
Training  Centre  for  instruction  in  School  and  Personal  Hygiene 
(including  a  course  in  Physical  Exercises),  Psychology,  Ethics,  Logic, 
and  the  History  and  Principles  of  Education. 

iyC)     Practical  Skill. 

The  students  have  to  undergo  a  course  of  instruction  in  the  methods 
of  teaching  each  of  the  subjects  of  the  Primary  School  curriculum,  and 
the  instruction  must  be  accompanied  by  adecjuate  practice  in  teaching 
under  skilled  supervision.  A  valuable  feature  of  the  practice  in  teaching 
under  the  new  system  is  that  it  is  given  in  the  grant-earning  schools  in 
the  district,  thus  ensuring  that  it  is  obtained  in  surroundings  approxi- 
mating as  nearly  as  possible  to  those  under  which  the  student  will 
afterwards    have    to    teach. 

n.     Teachers  of  Higher  Subjects  in  Intermedi.vte  and 

Secondary  Schools. 

(a)  General  and  Special  Education. 
As  a  guarantee  of  sound  general  culture  candidates  for  training  are 
required,  as  a  rule,  to  have  graduated  in  Arts  or  Science.  They  must 
further  produce  evidence  that  they  possess  a  thorough  knowledge  of  the 
particular  subject  they  desire  to  teach.  The  standard  of  knowledge 
required  by  the  Regukitions  is,  generally  speaking,  the  possession  of  a 
Degree  with  Honours  in  the  subject,  or  attainments  in  it  eiiuivalent  to 
this. 

{b)  Professional  Education. 
Students  during  their  training  must  undergo  a  course  of  professional 
education  approved  by  the  Department.  The  precise  nature  of  the 
course  is  not  prescribed  in  the  Regulations,  but  it  should  include  a  re- 
study  of  the  student's  particular  subject  from  the  professional  point  of 
view.  Each  subject  of  the  school  curriculum  requires  a  method  of 
treatment  which  unfolds  its  inherent  logic,  and  adapts  it  best  to  the 
growing  mind  of  the  pupil.  The  Secondary  Teacher  while  in  training 
must,   therefore,  study  the  educational  possibilities  of  his  subject  for 


400  APPENDIX    II 

knowledge  and  for  discipline,  and  how  to  use  it  most  advantageously 
for  both.  The  professional  education  of  the  Secondary  Teacher  should 
also  include  a  number  of  subjects  the  same  as  for  Primary  Teachers, 
such  as  School  and  Personal  Hygiene,  Psychology,  Ethics,  Logic, 
History  and  Principles  of  Education,  all  treated  more  particularly  from 
the  point  of  view  of  the  requirements  of  the  secondary  school. 

(c)     Practical  Skill. 

The  Regulations  require  the  students  to  receive  instruction  in  the 
organisation  and  management  of  Intermediate  and  Secondary  Schools, 
and  to  make  themselves  accjuainted  with  the  actual  working  of  schools 
of  this  kind  to  which  access  is  obtained  through  the  Training  Centre. 

The  students  have  also  to  receive  instruction  and  practice  in  the 
methods  of  teaching  the  particular  subject  or  subjects  for  which 
recognition  is  desired. 

The  length  of  the  course  of  training  is  not  prescribed,  but  it 
generally  is  a  session  of  at  least  30  weeks.  This  period  may  be 
reduced  in  the  case  of  holders  of  the  Primary  Teacher's  Certificate. 

HI.     Teachers  of  Special  Subjects. 

The  Regulations  lay  it  down  that  in  order  to  obtain  the  recognition 
of  the  Department  as  quahfied  teachers  of  special  subjects  such  as 
Cookery,  Laundry  Work,  Drawing,  Physical  Drill,  Manual  Listruction, 
&c.,  three  conditions  must  be  fulfilled : — {a)  a  general  education 
equivalent,  generally  speaking,  to  the  standard  of  the  Intermediate 
Certificate,  {b)  an  expert  knowledge  of  the  special  subject  to  be  taught 
testified  to  by  the  Diploma  of  an  Institution  recognised  by  the 
Department  for  the  purpose,  {c)  the  successful  completion  of  an 
approved  course  of  professional  training,  including  instruction  in  the 
aims  and  methods  of  education  generally,  and  in  the  teaching  of  the 
particular  subject  for  which  recognition  is  desired. 

By  the  issue  of  the  Minute  of  1905  little  less  than  a  revolution 
has  been  effected  in  the  system  of  training  Scottish  teachers,  and 
great  changes  are  still  ahead.  Owing  to  the  sound  general  education 
given  at  the  Junior  Student  Centres,  the  Provincial  Training  Colleges 
will  in  course  of  time  be  relieved  of  the  necessity  of  giving  instruction 
in  general  subjects,  the  quality  of  the  practical  training  given  in  them 
will  be  raised,  and  they  will  probably  become  more  closely  connected 
with  the  Universities  as  their  Professional  Schools  for  the  Training 
of  Teachers. 

The  number  of  students  at  present  (May,  1909)  undergoing  training 
in  the  various  Provincial  Training  Colleges  is  as  follows  : — 


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26 


402  APPENDIX    HI 


APPENDIX    III 

SECONDARY   SCHOOLS. 
(By  Charles  S.  Dougall,  M.A.,  Headmaster  of  Dollar  Institution.) 

The  issue  of  "  Regulations  for  the  Preliminary  Education,  Training, 
and  Certification  of  Teachers  for  various  Grades  of  Schools,"  in  June, 
1906,  marked  the  beginning  of  a  period  of  the  utmost  interest  and 
importance  in  the  history  of  Scottish  Secondary  Schools.  A  prefatory 
note  to  the  Regulations  formulated  the  principle  that  schools  should  be 
classified  according  to  function.  Whatever  their  origin  or  history,  those 
schools  which  provided  a  three  years'  course  of  secondary  education 
were  to  be  called  '  Intermediate '  and  those  which  provided  a  course 
extending  over  at  least  five  years  were  to  be  called  'Secondary.'  Thus 
the  former  distinction  between  '  Higher  Class '  and  '  Higher  Grade ' 
schools  was  abolished  at  least  as  far  as  nomenclature  is  concerned. 

Further,  of  the  55  Secondary  Schools  receiving  grants  under  the 
Minute  of  April,  1899,  37  have  been  recognised  as  Junior  Student 
Centres,  and  share  with  73  Higher  Grade  Schools  the  work  of  training 
the  future  teachers  of  the  country.  Those  Junior  Student  centres 
cannot  hope  to  perform  their  work  satisfactorily  unless  they  are  closely 
in  touch  with  the  primary  schools  on  the  one  hand,  and  with  the 
Training  Colleges  and  Universities  on  the  other.  One  result  of  the 
Regulations,  therefore,  has  been  a  striking  consolidation  of  the 
educational  forces  of  the  country. 

The  cost  of  education  has,  within  recent  years,  increased  at  so  alarm- 
ing a  rate  that  the  incomes  of  Secondary  Schools — from  endowments, 
fees,  common  good,  or  other  local  sources, — have  had  to  be  augmented. 
Grants  from  District  Committees,  with  varying  conditions  as  to  the 
provision  of  free  places,  &c.,  were  not  always  satisfactory.  Payments 
on  results  by  the  Science  and  Art  Department,  and  latterly  by  the 
Education  Department  on  attendances  made  in  Science  and  Art  Classes, 
had  served  their  end.  The  "  Regulations  as  to  Grants  to  Secondary 
Schools,"  issued  in  1907,  came  therefore  none  too  soon.  The  new 
Regulations  offered  (a)  a  grant  of  ^^3  on  the  average  attendance  of 
pupils  who  had  passed  the  'Qualifying  examination,'  but  had  not 
obtained  the  Intermediate  Certificate;   and  (/^)  a  grant  of  ^5  on  the 


SECONDARY   SCHOOLS  4O3 

uvcragu  attendance  uf  pui)ils  who  had  obtained  the  Intermediate 
Certificate.  '1  luis  those  schools  which  had  not  speciaHsed  in  Science 
received  largely  increased  grants.  At  the  same  time,  schools  which  had 
been  pioneers  in  the  teaching  of  Experimental  Science,  were  distinct 
losers  by  the  new  regulations.  In  the  case  of  one  such  school,  the 
grant  has  fallen  from  nearly  ^3,000  to  less  than  ;i^  1,500.  Yet  the 
curriculum  in  this  particular  school  has,  for  21  years,  been,  in  its 
essentials,  that  which  the  Department  now  demands  for  the  Inter- 
mediate Certificate. 

The  whole  efTect  of  the  Regulations  has  been  to  bring  the  Secondary 
Schools  more  directly  under  the  Education  Department.  Before  grants 
can  be  earned,  curricula  must  be  approved,  premises  and  staff  must  be 
declared  adequate,  and  the  number  of  pupils  in  a  class  must  be 
restricted.  In  so  far  as  this  makes  for  increased  efificiency,  it  is 
altogether  well,  but  there  is  a  danger  that  teachers  and  managers, 
working  under  stereotyped  conditions,  may  lose  that  power  of  initiative 
which,  more  than  any  enactments  of  department  or  parliament,  tends 
to  the  increased  efficiency  of  a  school. 

There  is  another  danger.  Inspection  of  Secondary  Schools  has,  of 
necessity,  become  more  rigorous.  Specialists  must  be  sent  to  examine 
special  subjects,  and  there  is  a  tendency  for  each  Departmental  Master 
to  be  made  to  feel  that  his  particular  subject  is  the  only  important  one 
in  the  curriculum.  Steadily  and  speedily,  the  standard  of  attainment  is 
rising,  and,  in  conse(iuence,  the  risk  of  over-pressure  is  increasing. 
Fortunately  there  is  also  steadily  growing  the  opinion  that  over-pressure 
is  the  one  intolerable  evil  in  education.  Better  send  out  from  our 
educational  factories  a  sound  machine  which  is  yet  untried  than  a  worn- 
out  instrument  which  lias  worked  itself  done. 

In  consequence  of  the  changes  introduced  by  the  new  Regulations, 
Secondary  Schools  have,  in  many  cases,  found  it  necessary  to  add  to 
their  buildings  as  well  as  to  their  staffs.  How  is  the  increased  cost  to  be 
met  ?  The  local  ratepayer  is  taxed  to  his  utmost  capacity.  No  substantial 
additions  to  endowments  need  be  looked  for ;  for  the  private  bene- 
factor seldom  seeks  to  relieve  the  State  of  the  cost  of  a  duty  which  it  has 
undertaken.  It  is  therefore  more  and  more  necessary  that  grants  from  the 
Imperial  Exchequer  should  be  maintained  and  increased.  The  establish- 
ment of  the  Education  (Scotland)  Fund  by  the  Act  of  1908  appears 
to  promise  substantial  aid  from  the  Exchequer.  A  sum  of  nearly  half  a 
million  will  be  available  for  the  purposes  of  that  fund,  one  of  which  is 
said  to  be  "  to  secure  the  maintenance  in  each  Education  District  of  a 
sufficient  number  of  well-equipped  and  well-staffed  centres  of  higher 
education."     The  success  with  which  this  purpose  is  fulfilled  will  be 

26 — 2 


404  APPENDIX    IIT 

proportional  to  the  wisdom  of  the  District  Committees.  Fortunately 
before  any  permanent  steps  have  been  taken,  the  Committees  have  been 
re-constituted,  and  now  include  representatives  of  all  the  interests 
involved.  This  rc-constitution  may  mean  much  for  the  future  of 
secondary  education  in  Scotland.  It  may  be  expected  that  the 
Committees  will  support  one  or  two  fully  equipped  centres  of  higher 
education  in  each  district  rather  than  seek  to  set  up  a  costly  and 
inefficient  secondary  department  in  every  little  township  in  the  district. 
Ample  power  is  given  to  bring  the  pupil  to  the  teacher  and  the  school. 
It  would  be  sheer  waste  to  attempt  to  reverse  the  process. 

Another  purpose  of  the  Education  Fund  is  "  to  provide  means 
whereby  the  opportunities  for  education  at  centres  of  higher  education 
may  be  brought  within  the  reach  of  duly  qualified  pupils  in  every  part 
of  the  District."  No  one  will  deny  the  right  of  the  child  in  the  remotest 
part  of  a  district  to  the  benefits  of  higher  education,  but  it  will  be 
necessary  to  guard  against  a  misuse  of  the  funds  available  for  bursaries. 
No  bursary  should  be  granted  without  a  reasonable  guarantee  that  the 
bursar  will  complete  a  recognised  course  of  secondary  education  during 
his  tenure  of  the  bursary.  It  is  not  uncommon  for  a  class  of  loo  in  the 
first  year  of  the  Intermediate  Course  to  fall  to  60  in  the  second  year, 
and  to  40  or  even  less  in  the  third  year. 

The  Act  of  1908  provides  that  "the  school-board  having  the 
management  of  any  school  which  is  a  higher  class  public  school  within 
the  meaning  of  the  Education  Act,  1872,  shall  be  bound  to  maintain 
the  same  in  a  condition  of  efficiency  as  a  secondary  school,  and  shall 
have  the  same  powers  of  providing  for  the  maintenance  thereof  from  the 
school  fund  as  they  have  in  respect  of  any  other  public  school  under 
their  management."  Such  schools  will,  therefore,  no  longer  run  the 
risk  of  being  treated  as  step-children.  The  managers  of  some  small 
endowed  schools  will  probably  elect,  or  be  compelled,  to  hand  over 
their  management  to  the  local  school-board,  which  shall  then  become 
liable  for  the  maintenance  of  the  school  in  a  state  of  efficiency.  There 
are,  however,  many  cases  in  which  it  is  neither  possible  nor  desirable  to 
transfer  the  management  of  an  endowed  school  to  the  local  school-board. 
The  parish  is  a  small  rural  one ;  the  members  of  the  school-board 
have  little  sympathy  with  higher  education  ;  they  have  no  knowledge  of 
the  management  of  a  secondary  school.  It  would  be  a  calamity  if  to 
such  a  board  there  were  entrusted  the  destinies  of  a  school  whose 
interests  are  not  bounded  by  the  parish  or  even  by  the  county  in 
which  it  is  situated. 

By  the  minute  of  the  Department,  dated  27th  April,  1899,  a  certain 
sum  was  set  aside  for  distribution  among  secondary  schools  in  Scotland. 


SECONDARY   SCHOOLS  4O5 

For  the  year  1907-8,  55  schools  received  a  total  sum  of  ;!{^33,95o  in 
grants  under  this  minute.  Of  this  total,  ;i£^i3,3od  was  paid  to  schools 
not  under  the  management  of  school-boards.  In  many  schools  the 
salaries  of  teachers  depend  in  whole  or  in  part  upon  the  continuance  of 
this  grant.  Hut,  by  the  Education  Act,  the  grant  is  included  in  the 
Education  I'und.  In  its  stead,  there  will  be  paid  to  the  managers  of  an 
endowed  school,  for  each  pupil  whose  parents  are  ordinarily  resident 
outwith  the  school-board  district  in  which  the  school  is  situated,  a  sum 
calculated  as  the  equivalent  of  the  expenditure  from  the  endowment  of 
the  school  ui)on  the  education  of  such  pupil.  The  amount  of  this  grant 
will  therefore  depend  upon  the  average  attendance  in  the  first  place,  and, 
in  the  second,  upon  the  number  of  puj^ils  from  outside  parishes.  There 
is  thus  considerable  room  for  variation  from  year  to  year.  A  further 
payment  may  be  made  to  the  governing  body  of  an  endowed  school  from 
the  education  fund  of  the  district,  provided  the  cost  of  education  in  the 
school  is  not  excessive  as  compared  with  that  in  other  schools  in  the 
district.  Here  again  the  endowed  schools  are  at  the  mercy  of  the 
District  Committees. 

To  secure  uniformity  in  the  methods  of  awarding  bursaries  through- 
out a  district,  the  Act  provides  that  where  the  annual  revenue  of  any 
endowment,  applicable  to  the  granting  of  bursaries,  does  not  e.xceed 
^50,  it  shall  be  paid  over  to  the  District  Committee  to  be  administered 
by  that  Committee;  and  where  the  annual  revenue  available  for 
bursaries  exceeds  ^50,  but  does  not  exceed  ^1,000,  it  shall  be  applied 
by  the  Governing  Body  in  conformity  with  the  bursary  scheme  framed 
by  the  District  Committee.  The  rights  of  schools  or  individuals  to 
preference  in  the  allocation  of  the  bursaries  are  duly  safeguarded. 
Overlapping  should  thus  be  prevented,  and  provided  that  District 
Committees  and  Governors  of  Endowed  Schools  work  together,  the 
various  bursary  schemes  should  become  more  effective  for  the  purpose 
they  were  destined  to  fulfil. 

One  other  provision  of  the  Education  Act  may  be  noted.  For  the 
first  time  in  the  history  of  Scottish  legislation,  teachers  in  all  public 
schools, — primary  and  secondary,  endowed  and  central, — are  offered 
pensions  upon  terms  which  are,  to  say  the  least,  just  and  reasonable. 
Thus  there  is  definitely  established  the  important  principle  that  teachers 
of  every  grade  and  engaged  in  every  class  of  school,  are  members  of 
one  profession,  entitled  to  one  method  of  treatment  in  this  matter  of 
pensions. 

Throughout  the  period  under  review,  the  question  of  the  conditions 
upon  which  Intermediate  and  Leaving  Certificates  should  be  awarded 
has  been  a  matter  of  earnest  consideration.     The  question  is  an  im- 


406  APPENDIX    Til 

portant  one.  Indeed  it  is  not  too  much  to  say  that  the  nature  of  its 
solution  will  determine  the  nature  of  the  curricula  of  the  Secondary 
Schools.  The  conditions  for  the  Intermediate  Certificate  may  now 
be  regarded  as  fixed.  Candidates  for  this  Certificate  must  have  followed 
an  approved  course  of  study  in  an  Intermediate  or  Secondary  School 
for  at  least  three  years.  That  course  of  study  must  include  English, 
History,  Geography :  Mathematics^  Arithmetic ;  one  language  other 
than  English  ;  Experimental  Science ;  and  Drawing.  The  attainments 
of  the  candidates  in  each  subject  are  tested  by  examinations  at  the  end 
of  the  course,  the  standard  being  normally  that  of  the  Lower  Grade 
Leaving  Certificate,  although  excellence  in  one  subject  may,  to  a  certain 
extent,  compensate  for  deficiency  in  another.  Marks  given  by  the 
teachers  in  each  subject,  and  a  general  mark  by  the  Headmaster,  are 
taken  into  account  in  awarding  or  withholding  the  Certificates. 

The  new  conditions  have  been  subjected  to  much  criticism  on  the 
ground  that  they  impose  a  uniform  curriculum  upon  the  pupils  at  the 
Intermediate  stage.  It  may  be  taken  that,  in  the  majority  of  cases,  the 
school  week  is  divided  into  35  periods  of  some  45  minutes  each. 
These  are  allocated  as  follows : — English,  History  and  Geography, 
7  to  9  periods ;  Mathematics  and  Arithmetic,  6  to  8 ;  Science,  4 ; 
Drawing,  3  ;  Foreign  Language,  5  to  7  ;  Physical  exercises,  i  or  2  ; 
leaving  in  the  most  favourable  case  only  9  periods  per  week  available 
for  any  specialisation  on  the  part  of  individual  pupils.  This  is  not 
the  place  to  discuss  the  general  question  of  specialisation.  It  need 
only  be  pointed  out  that,  on  the  one  hand,  there  is  general  agreement 
that,  if  a  uniform  curriculum  is  desirable  at  this  stage,  that  imposed  by 
the  Department  is  worthy  of  all  commendation ;  and,  on  the  other 
hand,  that  the  Royal  Commissioners  of  1868,  in  their  day,  found  chaos 
in  the  Secondary  Schools  of  Scotland  because  of  the  absence  of  any 
fixed  curriculum. 

It  was  hoped  that  by  the  change  of  the  date  of  the  examinations 
from  June  to  March  or  April  an  opportunity  would  be  given  for 
consultation  between  visiting  Inspectors  and  teachers  upon  all  cases  in 
which  the  'reasoned  verdict'  of  the  teacher  differed  widely  from  the 
results  of  the  written  examinations.  Unfortunately  this  hope  has  not 
yet  been  realised.  The  written  examinations,  with  all  the  accidents 
to  which  youthful  examinees  are  prone,  are  still  the  main  factor  in  the 
determination  of  the  result.  The  machinery  by  which  a  true  verdict 
may  be  arrived  at  has  been  invented.  It  remains  to  devise  means  to 
make  that  machinery  work  with  the  maximum  efficiency. 

The  regulations  for  the  Leaving  Certificate  proper  are  still  under 
consideration.      Here  the  difficulties  are  enormously  increased  by  the 


SF.CONDARV    SCHOOLS  4O7 

fact  that  the  Leaving  Certificate  has  become  the  principal  passport 
to  the  Universities.  Important  changes  are  imminent  in  the  regulations 
for  the  Preliminary  examinations,  Bursary  competitions,  and  Degrees, 
in  the  Scottish  Universities,  and  the  time  is  not  opportune  for 
criticism  of  the  existing  conditions.  One  hopes  that  the  day  is  not  far 
distant  when  the  possession  of  a  Certificate  testifying  to  the  successful 
completion  of  a  definite  course  of  instruction  in  a  Secondary  School 
will  exempt  its  holder  from  any  further  preliminary  examination  before 
entrance  upon  a  course  for  a  degree  in  a  University.  The  broad  lines 
upon  which  Leaving  Certificates  will  in  future  be  granted  have  been 
sufficiently  indicated  in  recent  circulars  of  the  Department.  Schools 
will  submit  curricula  of  studies  extending  over  two  or  three  years  after 
the  Intermediate  Certificate  has  been  gained.  Specialisation,  now  that 
the  general  culture  implied  by  the  Intermediate  Certificate  has  been 
attained,  will  be  encouraged.  English  will  be  compulsory  in  every  case, 
but  otherwise  there  will  be  complete  freedom  to  formulate  courses 
complete  in  themselves,  and  having  some  definite  bearing  upon  the 
future  lifework  of  the  candidates.  As  in  the  case  of  the  Intermediate 
Certificate,  account  will  be  taken  of  the  opinions  of  teachers  as  to  the 
fitness  of  a  candidate  before  a  certificate  is  awarded  or  withheld. 

For  some  years  the  Education  Department  has  been  steadily 
developing  a  great  scheme  of  Secondary  Education  in  Scotland.  It 
has  perforce  proceeded  slowly  and  gradually.  Its  whole  aim  was  not 
apparent  in  the  first  circulars  and  minutes.  But  now  the  end  is  in 
sight,  the  full  development  of  the  scheme  is  at  hand.  It  will  find 
Scotland  in  the  possession  of  means  for  Higher  Education  such  as  she 
never  before  could  boast.  Buildings  and  ecjuipment  are  being  supplied  ; 
teachers  are  being  educated  and  trained  ;  and  the  capable  child  in  the 
remotest  part  of  the  country  has  open  to  him  a  clear  path  from  the 
primary  school  to  the  University  or  the  Technical  (College.  All  this 
is  the  result  of  the  steadily  pursued  policy  of  the  IMucation  Department. 


4o8  APPENDIX    IV 


APPENDIX    IV 

THE  PRESENT  STATE  OF  TECHNICAL  EDUCATION. 
(By  Dr  John  G.  Kerr,  Headmaster  of  Allan  Glen's  School,  Glasgow.) 

Technical  Education  as  provided  in  colleges  and  other  institutions 
with  a  view  to  the  better  equipment  of  those  engaged  in  engineering 
and  industrial  pursuits  has  made  great  progress  in  Scotland  during  the 
past  few  years.  Students  are  better  prepared,  the  subjects  are  more 
immediately  applicable,  instruction  is  more  direct  and  practical,  and  the 
State  as  well  as  the  public  is  more  generous  in  its  support. 

To  form  a  just  estimate  of  the  present  position  it  may  be  well,  even 
at  the  risk  of  repetition,  to  make  some  reference  to  the  stages  by  which 
that  position  has  been  reached. 

It  is  in  the  first  place  important  to  remember  that  in  the  early  years 
of  the  19th  century  there  was  in  Edinburgh,  in  Glasgow,  and  for  that 
matter  in  every  town  of  note  in  the  country  a  most  vigorous  movement 
for  technical  education.  Mechanics'  Institutes,  offering  courses  in 
chemistry,  natural  philosophy  and  mathematics,  and  attended  by 
crowded  audiences  (one  course  in  Glasgow  had  a  roll  of  900),  testified 
to  a  widespread  desire  for  instruction  in  scientific  matters.  As 
confirmatory  evidence  of  the  volume  and  importance  of  the  work  done 
it  is  interesting  to  find  in  1824  an  eminent  mechanical  engineer, 
M.  Dupin,  calling  the  attention  of  France  to  the  Andersonian  College, 
"a  school  for  teaching  the  theory  of  the  mechanical  and  chemical  arts — 
intended  not  only  for  the  directors  of  the  workshops  but  particularly 
for  the  simple  working  man."  He  attributes  the  industrial  supremacy 
of  this  country  to  the  cultivation  of  science,  and  he  calls  upon  French- 
men "  not  to  remain  behind  in  this  immense  progress  but  to  proceed  on 
the  same  lines  in  order  to  outstrip,  if  possible,  a  people  whom  Nature 
has  made  our  rival  in  every  kind  of  glory." 

Soon  however  there  fell  a  blight  on  Mechanics'  Institutes  and 
science-diffusing  societies.  Save  in  the  great  centres,  and  even  there  the 
falling  off  was  rapid  and  decided,  the  Mechanics'  Institute  failed  to 
maintain  its  vitality  and  the  promise  of  its  youth.  The  students  were 
as  a  rule  too  old,  their  preliminary  training  was  too  limited,  the  lecture 
system  was  not  fruitful,  and  financial  difficulties  appeared.  This  is  in 
brief  the  story  of  the  first  stage. 


TECHNICAL   EDUCATION  409 

The  second  half  of  the  century  experienced  a  strong  revival  of 
interest  in  science  teaching.  The  great  exhibition  of  1851  supplied  the 
stimulus,  and  in  the  course  of  a  few  years,  through  the  operations  of  the 
Science  and  Art  Department  a  "People's  University,"  as  Huxley  put  it, 
was  established.  Through  the  fostering  influence  of  grants  earned 
under  relatively  easy  conditions  as  to  equipment  and  staffing,  but  in 
connection  with  a  strict  scheme  of  examinations  with  rigorous  tests  of 
proficiency  in  the  carefully  drawn  programmes  of  study  of  such  subjects 
as  Mathematics,  Descriptive  Geometry,  Mechanics,  Electricity,  Steam, 
Geology  and  Physiology,  there  gradually  came  into  existence  in  the 
cities,  the  towns,  and  even  the  more  enterprising  villages,  active 
committees  under  whom  classes  were  organised,  examinations  conducted, 
and  instructors  paid.  Central  institutions  began  to  weld  isolated  classes 
into  systematic  courses  and  the  schools  also  found  it  financially 
profitable  to  establish  a  connection  with  the  Science  and  Art  Depart- 
ment. During  session  1892-3,  for  example,  the  grant  for  science 
given  to  Scotland  amounted  to  ;^2  7,000,  of  which  more  than  ^5000  was 
earned  by  the  eight  organised  science  schools  then  in  existence.  In 
these  schools  the  curriculum,  while  mainly  built  up  of  well-ordered 
courses  in  physics,  chemistry,  mathematics  and  manual  instruction,  had 
at  least  one-third  of  the  school-time  devoted  to  literary  subjects.  So 
far  therefore  as  the  associating  of  science  study  with  a  sound  general 
education  is  concerned  South  Kensington  can  claim  to  have  taken  the 
broad  view  and  to  have  done  service  of  high  educational  value.  The 
kind  of  instruction  in  science  however  was  essentially  academic  and 
only  indirectly  utilitarian.  The  tender  phrasing  of  the  Technical 
Instruction  Act  of  1889  indicates  the  spirit  in  which,  not  only  in  schools 
but  also  in  central  institutions,  the  teaching  of  science  was  carried  on. 
According  to  that  act  Technical  Instruction  was  concerned  with  the 
principles  of  science  and  art  applicable  to  industries  but  "  did  not 
include  teaching  the  practice  of  any  trade,  industry,  or  employment." 
Since  1900  the  work  initiated  by  the  Science  and  Art  Department  and 
successfully  carried  on  for  half  a  century,  has  been  undertaken  by  the 
Board  of  Education  ;  and  since  July,  1907,  sums  allotted  to  schools  by 
the  Scotch  Education  Department  from  the  Science  and  Art  vote  have 
been  merged  in  payments  for  the  whole  work  done  in  secondary 
schools,  provided  that  science  subjects  receive  adecjuate  attention  there. 
The  central  specialised  institutions  are  liberally  supported  on  a  separate 
scheme.  This  takes  us  to  the  end  of  the  second  stage  and  to  the 
conviction  that  discipline  in  science  is  of  service  in  general  culture  and 
is  a  subdivision  of  secondary  education  ;  that  a  full  general  school 
training  must  include  such  discipline;  and  that  technical  instruction  to 


4IO  APPENDIX   IV 

be  of  real  efificacy  must  rest  on  the  broad  basis  of  the  modern  secondary 
school  programme. 

The  third  stage  in  the  evolution,  that  in  which  we  now  are,  is 
marked  by  clearness  of  view,  definiteness  of  aim,  and  extended  scope 
of  operation.  The  progress  and  pressure  of  civilization  demand 
specific  preparation  for  specific  services  and  the  technical  education  of 
to-day  is  hastening  to  meet,  in  some  cases  even  to  anticipate,  the  needs 
of  industry  and  commerce. 

Accommodation,  equipment,  subjects  and  methods  are  being 
considered  with  immediate  reference  to  practical  life.  In  Scotland 
there  is  a  great  and  growing  supply  of  important  institutions  working 
along  lines  which  lead  to  industrial  fields  where  advance  is  not  possible 
except  through  increase  of  knowledge  and  control  of  scientific  principles. 
Evening  continuation  classes  are  provided  by  school-boards  either  to 
secure  additional  preparation  for  the  higher  instruction  in  technical 
colleges  or  to  supply  courses  of  practical  instruction  that  will,  apart 
from  the  question  of  higher  training,  improve  the  efificiency  of  workers 
in  various  industries.  Aberdeen  for  example  has  organised  classes  of 
the  latter  kind  on  a  liberal  scale.  Alongside  the  higher  technical 
institute  schools  with  commercial,  domestic  and  science  classes  there  are 
courses  of  instruction  for  architects,  builders,  cabinet-makers,  engineers, 
hthographers,  naval  architects,  painters,  plumbers,  stone-cutters,  and 
wood-carvers. 

Edinburgh  school-board  also  is  remarkable  for  its  enterprise  in 
establishing  classes  in  millinery,  carpentry,  cabinet-making,  machine- 
drawing,  building-construction,  applied  art,  confectionery,  proof-reading, 
&c.  In  the  Clyde  area  a  joint  committee  from  school-boards  and  other 
authorities  has  during  the  past  four  years  provided  in  classes  afifiliated  to 
the  technical  college  most  valuable  opportunities  for  youths  who  desire 
to  join  the  college  later  on.  In  session  1908-9  thirty-seven  centres 
were  at  work  with  an  attendance  of  4000  students.  A  definite,  uniform, 
balanced  scheme  of  special  preparation  in  these  classes  has  been 
carefully  thought  out  and  is  periodically  reviewed  by  the  organiser  in 
conference  with  the  instructors.  The  results  obtained  so  far  would 
justify  a  great  extension  of  the  committee's  operations.  Every  youth 
who  avails  himself  of  this  scheme  is  bound  to  profit  even  if  he  should 
not  proceed  to  college.  Some,  no  doubt  many,  will  during  the  process 
discover  that  they  have  (jualitios,  hitherto  latent.  They  will  strive  to 
develop  these  qualities  and  in  them  the  college  will  secure  students  of 
promise.  In  addition  to  classes  preparatory  to  higher  technical 
education  the  committee  has  encouraged  for  operatives  trade  classes  in 
which  skilled  craftsmen  are  the  instructors,  the  kind  of  work  done  being 


TFXTTNICAL   EDUCATION  4II 

approximately  that  of  the  shops.  The  conditions  of  apprenticeship 
have  undergone  such  change  of  late  years  that  the  usefulness  of  well- 
managed  trade  classes  is  beyond  dispute.  How  far  employers  are 
morally  bound  to  assist  in  promoting  technical  continuation  and  trade 
classes  is  not  easy  to  determine.  The  earnest  and  well  disciplined 
apprentice  is  worth  cultivating  for  his  immediate  service  apart  altogether 
from  the  wider  issue  of  national  progress. 

In  the  great  central  colleges  the  movement  for  specific  training  for 
specific  function  finds  its  highest  and  most  vital  expression.  The 
embodiment  of  the  technical  education  idea  in  an  imposing  edifice 
richly  endowed  with  material  appliances  for  its  realisation  is  in  itself  of 
great  significance  and  fraught  with  subtle  and  far-reaching  influences. 
l''rom  this  point  of  view  Edinburgh  with  its  handsome,  commodious,  and 
liighly  equipped  Technical  College — the  Heriot-Watt  >-iLnd  (ilasgow, 
rejoicing  in  the  magnificence  and  elaborateness  of  its  huge  institute  in 
(ieorge  Street  [The  Glasgow  and  West  of  Scotland  Technical  College], 
command  enthusiastic  admiration  and  approval. 

Needless  to  say  the  credit  for  the  progress  with  which  technical 
colleges  to-day  are  so  generously  and  so  justly  credited  lies  with  the 
distinguished  management  and  their  able  officers  of  the  teaching  staffs. 
That  programmes  of  organised  instruction  of  a  higlily  speciali.sed  type 
and  related  to  the  recjuirements  of  modern  engineering  and  industrial 
advance  can  be  successfully  carried  through,  is  due  however  to  the 
excellence  of  the  preparation  of  the  students,  and  therefore  to  the 
improved  character  of  elementary  education  and  the  remarkable 
extension  in  scope  and  duration  of  secondary  school  work  in 
Scotland. 

At  the  Heriot-Watt  College  last  session  there  were  in  attendance  at 
strictly  technical  classes  3000  evening  students  and  250  day  students. 
New  engineering  laboratories  with  complete  equipment  for  instruction 
in  prime-movers  were  opened.  A  mining  department  has  been 
established,  a  laboratory  for  technical  mycology  has  been  added  to  the 
department  for  the  training  of  brewers,  and  extensive  accommodation 
has  been  arranged  for  a  painting  school.  A  close  and  mutually 
profitable  relation  exists  between  the  Heriot-Watt  and  the  University, 
and  there  seems  to  be  a  likelihood  of  still  closer  co-operation  in  which 
the  scope  of  the  B.  Sc.  degree  may  be  so  widened  as  to  permit  Heriot- 
Watt  students  to  graduate  in  some  special  branch  or  other  of  engineering 
practice.  The  number  of  science  graduates  from  the  Heriot-Watt 
College  is  considerable  and  excellent  post-graduate  and  research  work 
is  being  carried  on  in  its  laboratories. 

The  last  annual  report  of  the  Governors  of  the  Glasgow  and  West  of 


412  APPENDIX    IV 

Scotland  Technical  College  gives  the  following  remarkable  figures  as  to 
volume  of  work: — Individual  students  1907-8  at  day  classes  605,  at 
evening  classes  4621,  at  Allan  Glen's  School  692— total  5918;  student 
hours,  at  day  classes  193,855,  at  evening  classes  295,923— total  489,778. 
In  that  report  attention  is  directed  to  the  suggestive  fact  that  the  roll  of 
students  contains  the  names  of  175  graduates  of  the  Universities  of 
Aberdeen,  Berlin,  Cambridge,  Edinburgh,  Glasgow,  Ireland  (Royal), 
London,  Oxford,  St  Andrews  and  Victoria.  The  diploma  of  the 
college  is  granted  in  the  following  departments  : — civil  engineering, 
mechanical  engineering,  electrical  engineering,  mining,  weaving, 
architecture  (conjointly  with  School  of  Art),  naval  architecture,  chemistry, 
metallurgy,  mathematics,  and  physics.  The  courses  of  study  extend, 
for  each  diploma,  over  three  sessions.  Holders  of  the  diploma  of  the 
college  are  eligible  for  the  degree  of  B.Sc.  in  engineering  of  the 
University  of  Glasgow  after  one  year's  attendance  at  prescribed 
university  classes.  There  is  under  consideration  a  still  closer  connection 
between  the  University  and  the  Technical  College  involving  the  likeli- 
hood of  advantage  to  students  and  to  both  institutions,  from  a 
rearrangement  of  B.Sc.  work  in  which  regard  will  be  paid  to  a  judicious 
division  of  labour  and  responsibility. 

In  addition  to  classes  in  subjects  belonging  to  the  several  diploma 
courses  there  have  been  provided  many  most  successful  trade  evening 
classes — e.g.  in  plumbing,  sheet-metal  work,  boot-making,  printing  and 
allied  trades,  watch  and  clock  making,  baking  and  confectionery.  Of 
the  students  attending  these  evening  classes  it  is  interesting  to  note  that 
1374  are  engineers  and  draughtsmen,  717  are  in  the  building  trade, 
353  are  civil  and  mining  engineers,  239  are  bakers,  120  are  telegraphists, 
161  are  chemists,  no  are  boiler-makers,  251  are  clerks  or  civil  servants, 
and  167  are  teachers.  The  staff  of  the  college  consists  of  10  Professors, 
9  other  Heads  of  Departments,  and  124  Assistant  Lecturers,  Demon- 
strators, and  Trade  Instructors.  The  maintenance  of  the  college 
entails  an  annual  expenditure  of  about  ^{^30,000.  Government  grants, 
made  under  a  special  minute  of  the  Scotch  Education  Department,  with 
the  approval  of  the  Treasury,  amount  to  about  ^10,000.  About 
;j^i 3,000  is  derived  from  endowments  or  is  secured  by  Act  of 
Parliament,  and  about  ^^6,500  is  students'  fees.  In  1903  His  Majesty 
laid  the  foundation  stone  of  the  new  buildings.  The  public  have 
cherished  high  expectations  of  the  benefits  that  will  flow  from  the  active 
existence  of  this  great  organisation,  and  the  list  of  subscriptions  to  the 
building  fund  has  reached  ;^35o,ooo,  ^53,805  being  Government 
grant,  ;,{^2 0,500  from  the  Corporation  of  Glasgow,  and  ;;i^i  0,500  from 
the  Educational  Endowments  Board.     Of  other  institutions  in  Scotland 


THK    UN'IVKRSITIKS  413 

doing  technical  work  mention  might  bu  made  (jf  the  Schools  of  Art, 
and  particularly  of  the  (llasgow  School  of  Art,  with  its  vast  influence  on 
art  teaching  in  the  Western  Division;  of  Cordon's  College  and  Ciray's 
School  of  Art,  Aberdeen  ;  of  the  Paisley  Technical  College  ;  of  the 
School  of  Mining,  (Coatbridge ;  and  of  the  Leith  Navigation  School ;  of 
the  agricultural  colleges,  and  of  the  centres  of  instruction  under  their 
control  ;  of  the  veterinary  colleges,  and  of  the  schools  of  domestic 
economy.  Enough,  however,  has  been  said  to  justify  the  claim  that,  as 
regards  technical  education  in  all  its  phases,  Scotland  occupies  a  strong 
position. 


APPENDIX    V 

THE  UNIVERSITIES. 
(By  Professor  Darroch,  Chair  of  Education,  Edinburgh.) 

C/ia?igcs  in  the  Art  curriciihwi.  Since  1906  the  most  important 
change  has  been  the  passing  of  new  ordinances  regulating  the  granting 
of  degrees  in  Arts  in  the  Universities  of  Aberdeen,  Glasgow  and 
Edinburgh.  As  yet,  the  University  of  St  Andrews  has  not  brought  itself 
into  line  with  the  other  three  universities,  but  it  is  understood  that  the 
authorities  there  are  engaged  in  the  framing  of  an  ordinance  with  a 
similar  object  in  view. 

The  ordinances  of  the  three  universities  named  are  drawn  up  in 
almost  identical  terms  and  effect  fundamental  changes  in  the  organisation 
of  the  Arts  faculties. 

The  first  change  effected  is,  that,  under  the  new  conditions,  instead 
of  the  [)resent  one  Winter  Session,  the  Academical  year  will  extend  to 
twenty-five  teaching  weeks  and  will  l)e  divided  into  three  periods  or 
terms.  Along  with  this  extension  of  the  session,  it  is  proposed  to 
reduce  the  number  of  lectures  or  of  formal  class-meetings  from  loo  to  75 
and  to  extend  and  to  develop  tutorial  work  in  connection  with  the 
various  classes.  With  the  longer  session,  and  by  the  provision  of 
tutorial  assistance,  it  is  hoped  that  more  individual  attention  may  be 
paid  to  students  than  under  the  present  system. 

The  second  change  introduced  by  the  new  ordinances  is  the 
reduction  of  the  number  of  subjects  which  may  be  included  in  a  degree 
course.      In  the  .Aberdeen  and  I'klinburgh  ordinances  it  is  enacted  that 


414 


APPENDIX   V 


"the  curriculum  for  the  ordinary  degree  in  Arts  shall  consist  ol five 
subjects  of  which  two  subjects  shall  be  studied  for  two  Academical 
years... provided  that  it  shall  be  in  the  power  of  the  Senatus  with  the 
approval  of  the  University  Court  to  reckon  courses  in  two  cognate 
subjects  as  two  courses  in  one  subject." 

The  ordinance  of  the  University  of  Glasgow  differs  slightly  from 
those  of  Aberdeen  and  Edinburgh.  In  the  former  it  is  laid  down  that 
"  the  curriculum  for  the  ordinary  degree  of  Master  of  Arts  shall  consist 
oi  five  or  six  subjects."  If  a  five-subject  degree  is  selected,  then  two 
of  the  subjects  must  be  studied  during  two  sessions  :  if  a  six-subject 
degree  is  chosen,  then  one  subject  must  be  studied  during  two  sessions, 
and  of  the  other  five  subjects,  two  must  be  cognate  (e.g.  Logic  and 
Moral  Philosophy)  and  these  must  be  studied  in  separate  sessions. 

The  effect  of  these  new  regulations  is  to  give  entire  freedom  to  the 
universities  in  the  framing  of  curricula  for  students,  and  it  now 
becomes  possible  to  establish  a  degree  course  which  shall  include 
neither  Latin  nor  Greek  nor  Mathematics.  Thus  e.g.  a  university 
may  approve  a  course  which  includes  French  and  German  studied 
during  two  sessions  along  with  English,  Moral  Philosophy  and  Logic 
studied  during  one  session.  The  third  change  is  the  power  given  to 
each  university  to  frame  its  own  courses  of  study  without  reference  to 
the  other  universities.  Under  the  new  ordinances  the  Senatus  and 
University  Court  of  each  university  has  power  to  make  from  time  to 
time  regulations  regarding  "  the  selection  of  subjects  for  the  curriculum, 
their  classification  as  cognate,  and  the  order  in  which  they  are  to  be 
studied,  and  also  regarding  the  standards  of  the  degree  examinations 
and  the  conditions  of  admission  thereto."  Moreover  power  is  also  given 
to  the  Senatus  and  University  Court  to  include  or  exclude  any  subject 
of  university  study  in  a  graduating  course  and  to  establish  new  courses 
for  l^egrees  with  Honours. 

Other  c/ia?iges  in  curriculum.  Early  in  1907  the  University  of 
Edinburgh  obtained  approval  of  an  ordinance  giving  them  power  to 
establish  the  degree  of  Bachelor  of  Science  in  Forestry,  and  arrangements 
have  now  been  made  for  a  complete  course  of  instruction  in  Forestry. 
In  fuly,  1907,  a  new  ordinance  regulating  degrees  in  Medicine  and 
Surgery  was  also  obtained  by  the  same  university.  The  principal 
features  of  the  ordinance  are  the  increased  opportunities  given  to 
students  for  taking  each  of  the  four  professional  examinations  in 
separate  sections,  and  the  holding  of  degree  examinations  in  December 
as  well  as  in  spring  and  summer. 

Changes  in  Bursary  Regulations.     New  ordinances  dealing  with  the 
regulations  as  to  the  award  of  Bursaries  and  Fellowships  have  also  been 


TIIK    UNIVKKSITIES  415 

promoted  by  the  Universities  of  Aberdeen,  Glasgow  and  I'Ldinburgli,  tlie 
object  being  to  allow  the  university  authorities  greater  freedom  than 
before  in  regard  to  the  selection  of  the  subjects  in  competitive  examina- 
tions and  in  the  award  of  bursaries. 

Ah'^v  Chairs  and  Lectureships.  During  the  past  two  years,  several 
important  additions  have  been  made  to  the  teaching  staffs  of  the 
universities.     The  following  are  the  most  important : — 

University  of  St  Andrews. 

(1)  Lectureship  in    Diseases  of  the  Skin. 

(2)  „  ,,  of  Cliildren. 

(3)  n  I-^tin. 

(4)  ,,  English  and   Philology. 

(5)  „  Mathematics. 

University  of  Glasgow. 

(i)     John  S.   Dixon  Chair  in  Mining. 
(2)     Lectureship  in  Physical  Optics. 


(3) 
(4) 
(5) 
(6) 
(7) 


Celtic. 

Psychology. 

Early  and  Middle  English 

Social  Economics. 

Pathological  Histology. 


University  of  Ahhrdfen. 

*(i)     Lectureship  in  Constitutional   Law  and   History. 

International   Law. 
Geology. 
Forestry. 
English. 
Study  of  Fisheries. 

University  of  Edinburgh. 
(i)     Lectureshi])  in  (}eography. 


(2) 

(3) 

(4) 

(5) 

(6) 

(2) 

Economic  History. 

(3) 

Mercantile  Law. 

(4) 

Statistics  and  Mathematical  Economics 

(5) 

Forest  Botany. 

(6) 

History  of  Medicine. 

*  By  the  establishment  of  these  lectureships  Ahenleen  has  now  a  fully  constituted 
Faculty  of  Law,  and  is  able  to  prepare  students  for  the  LL.B.  degree. 


4l6  APPKNDIX    V 

I.  Imperial  Grants.  At  the  present  time,  the  Scottish  Universities 
receive  from  Imperial  funds  an  annual  grant  of  ^72,000  (^42,000 
under  the  Act  of  1889  and  ;^3o,ooo  under  the  /\ct  of  1892).  In  view 
of  the  fact  that  the  newer  universities  of  England  and  Wales  have 
received  large  grants  within  recent  years,  a  conjoint  representation  was 
made  to  the  Chancellor  of  the  Exchequer  for  increased  assistance  for 
the  Scottish  Universities.  A  favourable  reply  was  received  and  a 
Treasury  Committee  with  the  Earl  of  Elgin  as  Chairman  has  recently 
been  appointed  to  inquire  into  the  needs  and  claims  of  the  universities. 

Under  Clause  16,  Sub-section  (b)  of  the  Education  (Scotland)  Act  of 
1908,  the  universities  may  also  participate  in  the  Education  (Scotland) 
Fund  in  respect  of  yearly  maintenance  expenditure. 

II.  Carnegie  Trust  Grants.  The  Carnegie  Trustees  in  their 
second  quinquennial  distribution  from  October  ist,  1908,  to 
September  30th,  191 3,  have  allotted  the  following  sums  to  the  respective 
universities. 

St  Andrews  ^37,500  {£l,S°^  annually  for  5  years) 

Glasgow  ^50,000  (^10,000      „  „           ) 

Aberdeen  ^40,000  (^8,000        „  „           ) 

Edinburgh  £S'2,S°'^  {.£'^°^S°'^      n  »            ) 

III.  Private  Benefactors.  During  the  past  two  years,  the  Univer- 
sities of  Scotland  have  received  several  notable  private  benefactions. 
The  most  important  are  the  following : — 

University  of  St  Andrews. 

From 

(i)     Andrew  Carnegie,  Esq.,  LL.D.,  for  additional  library  accom- 
modation at  St  Andrews       ...  ...  ...         ^10,000 

(2)  Andrew  Carnegie,  Esq.,  LL.D.,  for  erection  and  equipment  of 

physical  laboratory  at  Dundee         ...  ...         ^14,500 

(3)  Professor    Purdie    for   chemical    research    laboratory   at  St 

Andrews  ...  ...  ...         ...  ...         ;^9,ooo 

(4)  Mrs    Bell    Pettigrew    for    the    erection    of    a    museum    at 

St  Andrews    ...  ...  ...  ...  ...         ^6,000 

(5)  From  the  estates  of  the  late  Jane  Moncrieff  Arnott  and  of 

her  father  the  late  James  Moncrieff  Arnott,  Esq.,  of  Chapel, 
F'ife  ...  ...  ...  ...  ...         (about)  ^^7,000 


THE    UNIVERSITIES  417 

University  of  Glasgow. 

From 

(i)  James  S.  Dixon,  Esq.,  LL.D.,  Fairleigh,  Bothwell,  for  the 
endowment  of  a  Chair  of  Mining  (in  addition  to  /"i 0,000 
previously  given)        ^6,500 

(2)  From    the   trustees    of    the    late    Mr   T.     Graham    Young, 

Glasgow,    towards   the  endowment    of  a    Lectureship   in 
Metallurgical  Chemistry        ...  ^5,000 

(3)  From   the   Bellahouston   Trustees   for   the  acquisition    and 

equipment  of  a  new  recreation  ground        ...  ^2,500 

(4)  From  the  Right  Honourable  Lord  Newlands  for  the  purpose 

of  providing  additional  income  for  Snell  exhibitioners  at 
O^fo'-d  ;^io,ooo 

University  of  Aberdeen. 
From 
(i)     The  late  Colonel  Alex.  Milne,  CLE.,  for  bursaries  for  poor 
students         ^9,170 

(2)  The  late  Mr  William  Knox,  Grain  Merchant,  Aberdeen,  for 

Scholarships    in    Arts    and    Bursaries    in    Medicine    and 
I^ivinity  ^5,000 

(3)  The  late  Dr  John  Wight,  Aberdeen,  for  Medical  bursaries 

(4)  The  Hon.   A.  McRobert,  Cawnpore,  for  Cancer  Research 

Fellowship         per  annum  ^^400 

University  of  Edinburgh. 

From 

(i)  Sir  John  Jackson,  CE.,  London,  an  endowment  to  be  called 
"The  Professor  Tait  Memorial  Fund"  to  encourage 
Physical  research        ...         per  annum  (about)  ^200 

(2)  William  McEwan,  Esq.,  LL.D.,  an  endowment  for  the  upkeep 

of  the  McEwan  Hall  ...  ...  ...         ;!{^6,45o 

(3)  From  the  estates  of  the  late  Jane  Moncrieff  Arnott  and  of 

her  father  the  late  James  Moncrieff  Arnott,  Esq.,  of  Chapel, 

^^^^ ;^22,320 


K    E. 


27 


INDEX 


Aberdeen,  earliest  authentic  notice  of 
school,  2  ;  appointment  of  rector,  4  ; 
early  schools,  11,  12;  visited  by 
James  V,  24  ;  daily  routine  of  grammar 
school,  26  ;  rules  for  conduct  of  pujiils, 
27;  Hardyng's  Chroniclcy  64;  school 
visitation,  86;  holiday  riots,  89;  lax 
discipline,  89  ;  Shrove  Tuesday,  90 ; 
English  not  a  separate  branch,  99 ; 
French  taught,  99  ;  Magistrates  sign 
Covenant.  133  ;  arithmetic  taught,  162  ; 
geography  in  Grammar  School,  162  ; 
Dr  Melvin,  168;  in  University  matters 
conservative,  279;  continuation  classes, 
410 

Aberdeen  University,  foundation,  62 ; 
alleged  reason  for  existence,  63  ;  first 
building,  66  ;  Elphinstone,  Chanctllor, 
66 ;  subjects  taught,  66-7  ;  dictating 
from  text-books,  67 ;  thirty-six  mem- 
bers, 67  ;  constitution,  67  ;  Privy 
Councillors,  67-8  ;  duties  and  regula- 
tions, 68  ;  regular  salaries,  68  ;  funds, 
68-9;  Boece,  first  Principal,  69; 
Gavin  Dunbar,  Chancellor,  71  ;  in- 
crease of  staff,  71  ;  steady  prosperity, 
72  ;  Galloway's  reclorial  visit,  72  ; 
inexplicable  falling  off,  72-3  ;  general 
deterioration,  73  ;  first  bursary  com- 
petition, 73  ;  attitude  towards  the  Re- 
formation, 74;  adherents  of  the  old 
faith,  74  ;  gradual  decay,  74  ;  original 
foundations  restored,  114  ;  inquiry  into 
management,  125;  Marischal  College 
founded,  129;  "  regenting,"  130;  old 
foundation  restored,  130;  professoriate 
established,  130;  Nova  Fitudatio, 
130-1  ;  oKl  foundation  restored,  131  ; 
good  record,  132  ;  chair  of  Theology, 
132  ;  expenses  curtailed,  132  ;  brilliant 
scholars,  133  ;  teaching  discontinued, 
133;  King's  and  Marischal  Colleges 
united,  133  ;  division  of  revenue,  134  ; 
government,  134;  course  of  studies, 
134;  other  universities,  134;  union 
rescinded,  135;  living  in  college,  13!;; 


degrees,  \}fi\  laxity  in  graduation,  136; 
rivalry  between  colleges,  136  ;  Com- 
mission, 136;  red  gowns,  137;  Nova 
Fiindatio,  137;  student's  board,  232; 
deterioration,  237 ;  dilapidated  build- 
ing''. -37  ;  general  negligence,  237  ;  no 
Chancellor  nor  Rector,  237  ;  short  of 
funds,  237 ;  students  unsatisfactory, 
237-8  ;  no  minutes  kept,  238  ;  Greek 
chair,  238  ;  mathematics,  238  ;  great 
laxity  of  discipline,  238  ;  quarrels  in 
senatus,  238  ;  Royal  Commission,  239  ; 
staff  deposed,  239 ;  eminent  Scots- 
men, 240  ;  joint  medical  school,  243  ; 
discontinuance  of  school,  243  ;  perma- 
nent union  of  colleges,  246  ;  buildings 
retained,  246 ;  double  chairs,  246  ; 
extension,  new  chairs,  246  ;  privileges 
of  Act  of  1858,  246  ;  shares  M.P.  with 
Glasgow,  246;  re-endowment,  278; 
very  conservative,  279  ;  Latin  of  great 
importance,  279;  bursary- competitions, 
279;  well  trained  boys,  280;  students 
become  teachers,  282  ;  graduation, 
282;  university  for  teachers,  282; 
objection  to  double  marks,  355 ;  original 
research,  362 

"Aberdeen  Doctors,"  133,  279 

Aberdeen,  Gordon's  College  and  Gray's 
School  of  Art,  328 

Aberdeen  Medical  School,  243 

Abertleen  and  North  of  Scotland  College 
of  Agriculture,  328 

Aberdeenshire  school  house,  204 

Aberdour  school,  204 

Abolition  of  tests,  [95 

Absence  of  intellectual  stimulus  under 
Revised  Code,  203 

Academic  activity,  252 

Academic  life,  215 

"Academies,"  origin  and  purpose,  162; 
advanced  curriculum,  162  ;  Perth 
stands  first,  162  ;  largely  proprietary, 
163  ;  increase  in  numbers,  164  ; 
management,  164;  "secondarj',"  302 

Act    of    1858,    larger    powers    given    to 


27 — 2 


420 


INDEX 


Senatus,  333  ;  revision  of  University 
matters,  334  ;  increase  in  graduation, 
334-5 ;  emoluments  and  assistants, 
335 ;  commission  appointed,  335 ; 
principalships  not  confined  to  Estab- 
lished Church  ministers,  336 ;  new 
regulations  framed,  336 ;  academic 
character  to  law  degrees,  350  ;  Degree 
of  B.D.,  351-2;  report  on  medical 
degrees  in  St  Andrews,  366 

Act  of  1889,  Preliminary  examination, 
339  ;  M.A.  degrees,  341-3  ;  B.Sc.  and 
D.Sc.  degrees,  343-5  ;  extension  of 
universities,  346 ;  Committee  of  the 
Privy  Council,  346 ;  commissioners' 
work,  347-8;  "autonomy"  secured, 
348 ;  medical  course  extended,  348 ; 
regulations  of  1858  amended,  349; 
wider  scope  to  degree  of  LL.B. ,  350; 
Faculty  of  Divinity  untouched,  351  ; 
degree  of  B.D.,  351-2  ;  extra-mural 
teaching,  352-3;  lecturers  and  assist- 
ants, 354  ;  Bursary  regulations,  354-6  ; 
patronage  of  professorships,  356-7 ; 
finances  of  universities,  357;  pensions, 
salaries,  358-9  ;  new  chairs,  359-60 ; 
higher  degrees,  364-5 ;  medical  degrees, 
366  ;  affiliation  of  new  colleges,  368 

Act  of  Union,  220 

Acts  of  Parliament,  1496,  2,  19,  97, 
144;  1542,  20;  1563,  108;  1567,  77, 
100,  loi;  1578,  no,  128;  1579,  9^' 
no,  140;  1584,  80;  1587,102;  1592, 
77;  1594,  loi;  1597,  140;  1616,  188; 
1621,  148,  152;  1633,  loi  ;  1640,92; 
1641,  79,  133  ;  1655,  85,  92  ;  1658, 
85;  1662,  93,  81;  1681,  93;  1690, 
93.  171.  247;  1693,81;  1695,  156, 
263;  1696,101,200;  1698,258;  1707, 
81;  1714,183;  1716,262;  1720,183; 
1722,  262;  1803,  200;  1824,  199; 
1838,  199;  1845,  200;  1854,  200; 
1857,  200;  1858,  246,  262,  270,  273, 
333.  334;  1861,  171,  195,  200,  205, 
273;  1869,  304;  1872,  80,  171,  175, 
179,  195,  196,  197,  198,  205,  206,  274, 
284,  300,  301,  302,  329,  372,  395  ; 
1878,  300,  301,  304,  311,  312;  1882, 
312;  1887,318;  1889,320,347,409; 
1890,318,393;  1891,319;  1892,318, 
326;  1898,395;  1901,323;   1908,275, 

330.  394.  395.  403 
Acting   of    plays,    163;    encouraged    by 

Town  Councils,  163;  forbidden  by  the 

Church,    163;    in  Glasgow  University, 

230 
"Ad   vitam   aut   culpam,"    21,    29,   91, 

170,  171,  172,  200 
Adamson,  Archbishop,  112 
Administrative  Law,  351 


Advanced  subjects  neglected,  285  ;  ex- 
perience of  teachers,  285  ;  remarkable 
returns,  285  ;  statistics,  285-6 ;  su- 
periority of  Dick  Bequest  schools,  286 

Adventure  schools,  99,  164,  195 

Age,  entering  University,  277  ;  remaining 
at  school,  323;  intermediate  and  leav- 
ing certificates,  331 

Agricultural  Colleges,  East  of  Scotland, 
373.  374~5  ;  West  of  Scotland,  373, 
375-6;  South  of  Scotland,  376 

Agricultural  Museum,  266 

Agriculture,  345  ;  Edinburgh,  265, 
367.  375  ;    Glasgow,   367  ;    Aberdeen, 

367 

Ailsa,  Marquis  of,  357 

Alban,  43 

Albani,  219 

Albania,  57 

Aldine  Press,  49 

Alesius,  Alexander  Alane,  50 

"  Aliebowlis,"  88 

Allan  Glen's  Institution  Act,  306 

Allan  Glen's  School,  306-7  ;  foundation, 
306 ;  important  change,  306 ;  Glasgow 
and  West  of  Scotland  Technical  Col- 
lege, 307  ;  statistics,  307 

Alms,  97 

America,  United  States,  43 

Anatomy,  344,  349,  362  ;  Glasgow, 
122,  229;  Aberdeen,  138,  250,  252; 
Edinburgh,  149,  150,  154,  263,  264;  St 
Andrews,  134,  222,  223 

Ancient  History,  Edinburgh,  360  ;  Dun- 
dee, 365 

Anderson,  Maitland,  41,  42,  109,  216, 
222 

Anderson,  Principal,  charges  against, 
125  ;  deposed,  125 

Anderson,  P.  J.,  128,  254,  362 

Andersonian  School,  233,  408 

Angus,  43 

Angusiani,  139,  219 

Annals  of  the  University,  57;  ceremonial 
regulations,  57-8 ;  dissatisfaction  with 
University  matters,  58 

Annals  of  the  Faculty  of  Arts,  58 ; 
accurate  details,  58  ;  symptoms  of  de- 
cadence, 58 

Anne  of  Denmark,  96,  98,  101 

Anne,  Queen,  229,  238-9,  250,  257 

Annual  grant  of  ^"42,000,  351,  357-8; 
insufficient,  358  ;  additional  sum,  358 

Annuity,  274-5 

Anstruther,  Sir  Ralph,  220 

Antagonism  between  Episcopacy  and 
Presbyterianism,  132,  145 

Apothecaries,  156,  262,  263 

Appendix,  A,  Joint  Medical  School,  247  ; 
B,    subjects   for  [graduation,   247 ;    I, 


INDEX 


421 


Primary  Schools,  392-6;  II,  Train- 
ing of  teachers,  396-401  ;  III,  Second- 
ary schools,  402-7  ;  IV',  Ttchnical 
education,    408-13;     V,     Universities, 

4 '3-7 
Applied  science  degrees,  367 
Arabic,  342 

Arlnithnot,  I'rincipal,   120,  126,   128,  158 
Archaeology  and  Art  (History  of),  342  ; 

Aberdeen,  360 
Archery,  88,  134 
Argyll,  Duke  of,  336 
Aristotelian  philosophy,  11 2-3,  230 
"Aristotelian  quadrienniuni,"  117 
Aristotle,  St  Andrews,  52,  215;  (ilasgow, 

121;  King's  College,  129,  134;  Maris- 

chal  College,  139,141,  250;  Edinburgh, 

149,  260 
Arithmetic,  52,  67,  161,  162,   214,   282, 

324;   Glasgow,    119,    121;   Aberdeen, 

134 

Armstrong,  Professor,  370 

Arnott,  Jane  Moncrieff  and  James  Mon- 

crieff,  416,  417 
Arrogance  of  Church,  44,  93 
Art,  326,  342 
Arts  course,  337,  413-4 
Assessors,  244 

Assistant  teacher,  91  ;  daily  meals,  104 
Astronomy,   342,  344  ;  St  Andrews,   52, 

214;  Aberdeen,  67,  134,  251  ;  Glasgow, 

ti8,  122;   Edinburgh,  149,  265 
Atholl,  Duke  of,  222 
Augmentation  grant,  201 
"Augustan  Age,"  132 
Ayala,  Pedro  de,  Scotland  in  the  time  of 

James  IV,  65 
Ayr,  earliest  known  school,  2  ;  academy, 

10 ;  position  among  Scottish  towns,  1 1 ; 

elementary  subjects  in  sang  school,  99; 

grammar  school,   161  ;  academy,   162  ; 

holiday  season,  165 

B.A.  degree,  271,  336 
B.D.  degree,  351 
B.L.  degree,  350 
B.Sc.  degree,  344,  345 
Bachelor,  148 
Bacteriology,  368,  369 
Bajan,  148,  149,  259  ;  year,  244 
Balcanquhall,  145 
Balfour,  156 

Balfour    of     Burleigh,    Lord,     276;    on 
Equivalent  Grant,  303,  319,  321,  322 
Banff,  penalty  for  disobeying  council,  S4 
Bannockburn,  38 
Barbers,  relation  to  Church,  1 54  ;  surgery, 

'55 
Barber-surgeons,  154;  pioneers  of  medi- 
cal science,  154;  charter  granted,  154  ; 


steady  growth,  155;  advance  of  the 
age,    156 

Barbour,  Archdeacon  of  Aberdeen,  63 

Barron,  133 

Battersea  College,  209 

Beaton,  Cardinal  David,  61 

Beaton,  Archbishop  James,  49 

Beattie,  James,  240 

Bccket,  Thomas  a,  1 14 

Bedell,  7,  107 

"  Beggarly  elements,"  179,  302 

Bell,  Dr  Andrew,  16 1,  207,  208,  337 

Bellahouston  trustees,  417 

Bellenden,  74 

Bellenden,  Bishop,  133 

Bell-the-Cat,  Archibald,  62 

"  Belt  of  correction,"  120 

Bennam,  Master  Thomas  of,  1 1 

"  Bent  silver,"  88,  102 

Bequest,  Dick,  278-89;  Milne,  289-90; 
Philip,  290  ;  Reid,  266,  360 

Berry  chair  of  English  Literature,  360, 
365-6 

Beza,  1 12 

Biblical  Criticism,  chair  in,  Aberdeen, 
246  ;  Edinburgh,  271 

Bibliography,  362 

Biggar,  Collegiate  School,  16 ;  college 
founded  by  Lord  Fleming,  16 

Billiards,  134 

Biology,  344 

Birch-rod,  Scv  "  whipping,"  168 

Bishop,  Professor,  266 

Black,  Joseph,  231,  234 

Blackie,  Professor,  272 

"  Black  prelacy,"  93 

Blackstone  examination,  236 

Blackwell,  Thomas,  240 

Blind  Harry,  62 

Board  of,  agriculture,  374  ;  education, 
409 

Boece,  13,  66,  69,  72,  279 

Bologna,  university,  31 

Book-keeping,  162,  324 

Book  of  Discipline,  105-6 ;  national 
education,  106;  reorganisation  of  uni- 
versities, .106-7  '  Edinburgh,  06  ;  St 
Andrews,  107  ;  Glasgow  and  Aberdeen, 
107,  126;  parish  schools,  196 

Books,  absence  of,  i 

Borough  Road  Training  College,  209- 
10 

Boston,  student  expenditure,  232 

Boswell,  James,  173,  240 

Botany.  342,  344,  349;  Edinburgh,  156  ; 
Glasgow,  234 ;  Aberdeen,  244,  246, 
252;  St  Andrews,  365 

Bower,  41 

Bower,  lecturer,  238 

Bowls,  88,   134 


422 


INDEX 


Bowman,  Sir  David,  i6 

Boys     of    promise,    training     of,     198; 

careers  of,    199 
Brainard,  185 

Brechin,  dispute  over  patronage,  4 
Brewster,  Sir  David,  336 
Brougham,  199 
Brown,  Professor,  220 
Brown,  Professor  Hume,  39,  69-70 
Brown,  William  Lawrence,  137 
"  Brus  "  in  the  vernacular,  63 
Buchanan,    George,    50,    108,   no,    m, 

115,  116,  158 
Buchanenses,  139 
Buckle,  65 

Buildings,  ruinous,  101 
Buist,  Professor,  220 
Bulloch,  72,  132 
Bunche,  Walter,  60 
Burgess,  privilege,    155;     education   for 

children  of  poor,  178 
Burgh  Records,  insufficient  salaries,  1 76  ; 

school  vacant,  176 
Burgh  Schools,  conversion  into  burghal 
and  parochial,  83  ;  at  the  time  of  the 
Reform  Act,  164;  in  1867,  164;  no 
grants,  175  ;  liberality  of  magistrates, 
175;  hard  struggle,  176;  payment  in 
kind,  176;  poor  buildings,  176;  in- 
different equipment,  177;  aid  from 
Department,  177;  revised  code,  179; 
separate  Scottish  code,  179;  grant  for 
buildings,  300  ;  under  school  boards, 
300-2  ;  unfairly  treated,  301  ;  condition 
ameliorated,  316;  and  Equivalent 
Grant,  319 
Burghs  without  Burgh  Schools,  164 
Burnet,  Bishop,  140 

Bursar,     Glasgow,    56,    117,    120,    229; 
Aberdeen,    67,  73,    138-9,   237,    241, 
244;  St    Andrews,    218,    223;    menial 
services,     148;   common    table,     216; 
Dick  Bequest,  279  ;  S.P.C.K.,  291 
Bursaries,     earliest      foundation,      116; 
Marischal    College,    140,    141  ;    Edin- 
burgh    University,      148,     151,    257  ; 
S.P.C.K.,    187,     291  ;    book    of    dis- 
cipline,   196;    in    i8th    century,    199; 
St     Andrews,    223;     Glasgow,     233; 
Aberdeen,     239,     279,      280;     pupil- 
teachers,     213;    Merchant    Company, 
305;    Allan    Glen's,    306;    misuse   of 
funds,    310;    reform    in   system,    310- 
11;    for     continuation    classes,    330 ; 
regulations  for,  354  ;  open  to  women, 
356 ;     and     University     Court,     356 ; 
Ilighland    and    Agricultural    Society, 
373  ;  secondary  schools,  404 
Bursary    competition,    73-4,     174,    223, 
279;  lively  interest  in  Aberdeen,  280; 


comparative  apathy  in  Edinburgh  and 
Glasgow,  280  ;  Dick  Bequest,  283 ; 
Edinburgh  and  Aberdeen,  292  ;  under 
Endowed  Schools  Commission,  310 

Bursary  fund,  356 

Bursary  regulations,  Act  of  1889,  354-6 

Burton,  Hill,  45,  1 14 

CM.  degree,  336 
Caithness,  183 
Calton  Hill,  265 
Calvinistic  logic,  100 
Campbell,  Principal,  246 
Campbell,  Mrs,  of  TuUiehewan,  361 
Campbeltown,  164 
Candlemass  offering,  87,  102 
Canongate  School,  5,  82 
Canon  law,  55,  67 
Canonist,  129,  131 

Carlyle,  Thomas,  Rectorship  in  Glasgow, 
209 ;    views    on    education,    209 ;    on 
Divinity  lectures,  267 
Carnarvon,  Marquis  of,  222 
Carnegie,  Andrew,  362,  416 
Carnegie  Trust,    conditions    of,    362-3 ; 
results,    363-4 ;    agricultural    college, 
375  ;  grants,  416 
Carstares,  Principal,  124,  158,  257 
Catechism,  84,  100,  200 
Celtic,  342 
Censors,  166,  167 
Chalmer,  James,  13 
Chalmers,  Dr,  242 
Chalmers,  George,  258 
Chalmers,  Rev.  Dr,  220,  225 
Chancellor,   churchman  in  St  Andrews, 
217;  layman  appointed,  217;  duties, 
honorary  post,  217  ;  election  of,  335 
Charge  for  two  maps,  162 
Charles  I,  loi,  122,  130,  133,  168 
Charles  II,  122,  157 
Charles  V,  1 56 
Charteris,  145,  147,  152 
Chemistry,  342,  344,  349,  362,  368,  369, 
371  ;  St  Andrews,  219,  223,  334,  357; 
Glasgow,  234  ;  Aberdeen,  244  ;  Edin- 
burgh, 263 
Children,  over  six  years,  164 
Choristers,  22 

Christ's  Kirk  on  the  Green,  62 
Chronicle  by  John  Hardyng,  64 
Chronology,  251 

Church  History,  chair  in  Glasgow,  229; 
chair  in  Marischal  College,  253  ;  chair 
in  Edinburgh,  267 
Church,  chief  promoter  of  early  education, 
29,  44,  45  ;  badly  governed,  57;  its  wan- 
ing power,  76  ;  aim  of  new  as  of  old, 
76;  to  appoint  superintendents,  77;  to 
reform  schools  and  colleges,  77  ;  keen 


INDEX 


423 


interest  in  education,  79  ;  generosity, 
80  ;  management  of  parish  schools, 
80;  legal  right  to  appoint  teachers,  81  ; 
supervision  of  private  tuition,  81  ;  in 
Roman  Catholic  lands,  81  ;  jurisdiction 
untjuesiioned,  81  ;  attendance,  100  ; 
edict  against  surgery,  154;  influence 
on  community,  198  ;  connection  with 
school,  198,  211  ;  compulsory  attend- 
ance, 224-5 

Church  of  Scotland  Training  College, 
Glasgow,  209,  210,  294;  Edinburgh, 
210-1,  294  ;  Aberdeen,  294 

Circumtabular  questioning,  264-5 

Civil  Engineering,  234,  .572 

Civil  History,  St  Andrews,  220,  221, 
356;    Marischal  College,  251 

Civil  Law,  350;  Glasgow,  ^-^f  229; 
Aberdeen,  67,  129;  Edinburgh,  258, 
262 

Civilist,  129,  i3r,  243 

Classical  Archaeology,  362 

Classical  learning,  in  Aberdeen,  245 

Classical  literature,  337 

Classics,  203,  343,  365 

Clinical  Medicine,  Glasgow,  338 

Clinical  Surgery,  chair  in  Edinburgh, 
264  ;  chair  in  Glasgow,  338 

Cock-lighting,  48,  103 

Cock-money,  102,  103 

"Colleges,"  335 

College  of  Physicians,  London,  234 ; 
Edinburgh,   263 

College  of  Surgeons,  Edinburgh,  263 

College  Royal  in  Paris,  52 

Comitia,  218,  236 

Commercial  and  political  economy  and 
mercantile  law,  Edinburgh,  338 

Commercial  products,  324 

Committee  of  the  Privy  Council  (Uni- 
versities'), 346-7 

Common  good,  175,  176,  300,  302 

Common  table,  32,  51,  119,  122,  214, 
216,  224,  231-2,  241-2 

"  Commonwealth  have  profit,"  78 

Comparative  Anatomy,  Edinburgh,  264 

Comparative  Religion,  362 

Competition  and  presentation  Bursaries, 
280,  355  ;  Glasgow  University  pamph- 
let, 280-2 ;  striking  facts,  2S0 ;  best 
men  to  the  front,  281  ;  statistics  of 
Greek  class,  281 

Composition,  202,  393 

Compulsory  education,  for  eldest  sons,  3, 
19  ;  for  all,  196 

Confession  of  Eaith,  85,  92,  105,  125, 
137,  150,  171,  198,  200,  227,  249 

Constitutional    Law   and    History,     342, 

350 

Continuation   classes,  276,  329-30,   394, 


410;   four  divisions,  329-30  ;   open  to 
all,    330 ;    attendance    enforced,    330 
linked  with  central   institutions,  330- 1 

Continuation  Schools,  327 

Convention  of  Royal  Burghs,  96,  250 

Conveyancing,  350  ;  in  Glasgow,  234  ; 
Edinburgh,  262 

Co-operation,  between  minister  and 
teacher,    198 

Corderius,  172 

Cosmography,  1 18 

County  Council,  373,  374 

Court  of  Session,  238 

Covenant,  133,  141 

Coventry,  Dr,  265 

Craig,  James,  258,  262 

Craik,  Sir  Henry,  276,  303,  312,  313, 
325  ;  interest  in  secondary  education, 
316-7  ;  successful  results,  317  ;  higher 
class  schools,  326 

Crail,  educational  bequest,  15;  collegiate 
school,  16;  school  founded  by  Bowman, 
16;  teacher  appointed  for  life,  92; 
salary  of  school-master,  r6i 

Craufurd,  144-5 

Crawford,  Thomas,  7 

Criticism,  Marischal  College,  251 

Cromwell,   122,  134 

Cullen,  William,  231,  234 

Cunningham,  Alexander,  258 

Cunningham,  John,  95 

Curators,  334,  356 

Curriculum,  in  early  schools,  23,  26; 
same  pupils  throughout,  98,  117;  Glas- 
gow, arts,  118,  235  ;  Marischal  College, 
139,  251  ;  Edinburgh,  148,  150,  259, 
270  ;  17th  century,  161  ;  in  academies, 
162-3;  in  Burgh  schools,  174;  in 
Aberdour,  204  ;  Edinburgh,  di\  inity, 
261  ;  higher  grade  schools,  3t7-8, 
324  ;  for  junior  students,  318  ;  estab- 
lished in  1858,  341  ;  widened,  341 

"  Cursus  philosophicus,"  137,  249 

D.D.  degree,  352 

D.Sc.  degree,  344,  345 

Dalrymple,  66 

"Dame"  schools,  ?,  185;  "they're  a' 
deid,"  185 

Damman,  Sir  Adrian,  151 

Darroch,  Professor,  413 

Davidson,  Principal,  117 

Declaration,  92-3 

Decuriones,  166,  167 

Degrees,  70,  136;  loosely  conferred  and 
bought,  234  ;  Scottish,  despised.  234  ; 
medical,  under  Act  of  1858,  336  ; 
medical  course  shortened,  341  ;  im- 
perative and  optional  subjects,  341-2 

Dempster,  Thomas,  127 


424 


INDEX 


Desire  for,  culture  and  advancement,  97  ; 
purer  Latin,  152;  education,  199; 
general  culture  and  academic  ambition, 

337 

Despauter,  John,  20,  25,  98,  172 

Dewar,  Dr,  246 
Dialectic,  149,  214 

Dick  Bequest,  counties,  21,  278,  279, 
311;  to  be  stimulative,  283;  not 
eleemosynary,  283  ;  Trustees  have 
delicate  task,  284  ;  successfully  accom- 
plished, 284 
Dick  Bequest  Schools,  278;  Professor 
Menzies,  282  ;  Latin,  higher  subjects, 
282;  Latin  spoken,  282;  teachers  must 
be  graduates,  283 ;  also  pass  examina- 
tion, 283 ;  schools  harmonious  and 
prosperous,  284;  visitor  or  examiner, 
284  ;  discontinuance  of  same,  284 ; 
important  changes  in  1890,  284;  rural 
schools,  284 ;  fixed,  and  capitation 
grants,  285;  special  grants  for  higher 
subjects,  285  ;  superior  to  rest  of  Scot- 
land, 286  ;  "elementary  teachers  grad- 
uates, 286;  parish  school  to  university, 
286-7 ;  unique  record,  287  ;  high 
educational  standard,  287  ;  Agriculture 
in  Edinburgh  University,  287  ;  well- 
spent  money,  287  ;  Professor  Laurie's 
estimate  of,  287-8;  parochial  education 
satisfactory,  288;  three  objects  in  view, 
288  ;  statistics,  288-9  '>  secondary  sub- 
jects, 289 

Dick,  James,  283  ;  his  bequest,  283-4 

Disablement  allowance,  274 

Dismissal  of  teachers,  93-5 

"Disputation,"  150,  252 

Disruption,  effect  on  S.P.C.K.  schools, 
189-90;  General  Assembly  schools,  194; 
Training  Colleges,  211;  universities,  335 

Dissection,  263 

Distance  from  schools,  194 

District  Committees,  405 

Divinity  and  Biblical  Criticism,  chair  in 
Glasgow,  234 

Divinity,  chair  in,  Aberdeen,  136;  Edin- 
burgh, 152,  257 

Divinity  Hall,  admission  to,  261 

Dixon,  James  S.,  LL.D.,  417 

"  Dogmatic  atheism,"  241 

Dollar,  library,  10 1  ;  Institution,  309 

Donaldson,  Professor,  266 

Donatus,  Aelius,  20,  25 

Doubling  of  marks,  355-6 

Dougall,  Charles  S.,  402 

Douglas,  154 

Douglas,  Gavin,  69,  74 

Drawing,  175,  277,  324 

Dress,  37,  47.  137,  139 

Drummond,  George,  263 


Duchess  of  Sutherland's  technical  school, 

293 
Dun,  Principal,  140 
Dunbar,  Bishop  Gavin,  71;  Rait's  estimate 

of,  7 1  ;  Bulloch's  estimate  of,  72 
Dunbar's  charter,  71 
Dunbar,    English  and  Grammar  schools 

separate,  99;   arithmetic  taught,   162; 

whipping  in  schools,  166 
Dunbar,  W. ,  62,  65,  69 
Duncan,  98 
Duncan,  238 

Dundas  Vale  Training  College,  209 
Dundee,    first  authentic  notice  of  school, 

3;    payment   of  fees,    13;    Academy, 

162  ;  High  School,  301 
Dundee  Technical  Institute,  328 
Dunfermline,  98 
Dynamics,  327,  340,  344 

"Ear  of  corn,"  165 

Ecclesiastical  history,  Edinlmrgh,  1 58, 257 
Ecclesiastical  influence  on  the  wane,  17 
Ecclesiastical  tradition,  St  Andrews,  224 
Economic  Science,  343 
Economus,  73,  120 

Edinburgh,    schools    not   under    Church 
government,  5;  manysecondary  schools, 
14-15;     school    visitation,     86;     life 
appointment   of  teacher,   92  ;   medical 
school,  156,  263;  Merchant  Company, 
177-8;     Agricultural    Museum,    266 
Town  Council  and  Senatus,  269 
Edinburgh  Academy,  98,  301,  309 
Edinburgh  and  East  of  Scotland  College 

of  Agriculture,  328 
Edinburgh  High  School  (Grammar),  13; 
in  Blackfriar's  Wynd,  14  ;  examination, 
86  ;  rebellious  pupils,  89-90  ;  Masters 
keep  same  pupils,  98  ;  French  taught, 
99;  library,  loi  ;  building  completed, 
145  ;   geograyjhy  taught,    162  ;    Greek, 
172,  173,  228;  good  record,  309 
Edinburgh  Institution,  301,  309 
Edinburgh  Ladies'  College,  304 
Edinburgh  Royal  Infirmary,  founded,  263 
Edinburgh  School  of  Art,  328 
Edinburgh  University,  origin,  144  ;  Reid's 
bequest,  144;  "  Town's  College,"  144; 
appeals  to  Queen  Mary,  144  ;  charter 
granted,   145;   founders,  145;  Church 
rivalry,    145;    loss  of  original  charter, 
146;      King    James's    charter,     146; 
name  university,    146  ;    conferred   de- 
grees, 146  ;  first  building,  146;  Rector, 
147;   salary,    147  ;  humble  beginning, 
147  ;  number  of  students,  147  ;  gowns, 
147  ;  food  and  expenses,  148  ;  medieval 
survivals,   148  ;  degrees,    148  ;  gradual 
growth,    148,    150;    university   forms. 


INDEX 


425 


I48  ;  course  of  study,  149;  Professor 
of  Tlieoloj^y,  149  ;  rotation  of  Regents, 
149;  standard  of  work,  149;  medie- 
valism, 149;  "honours,"  150;  origin 
of  wrangler,  150;  theology,  150; 
Professor  of  Law,  150,  151  ;  Latin  class, 
151,  152;  Principal  and  Professor  of 
Divinity,  152;  steady  advance,  152; 
donations,  152;  mathematics  and  meta- 
physics, 153;  college  becomes  univer- 
sity. '53;  Rectorship,  nominal,  153; 
Henderson,  Rector,  153;  many  reforms, 
153;  Lord  Provost  and  College,  154; 
Barber-Surgeons,  154,  155;  scientific 
advance,  156;  eminent  men,  156;  Bo- 
tanical Garden,  156;  Professor  of 
Botany,  156  ;  Professor  of  Physic,  157  ; 
Faculty  of  Medicine,  157;  standard  de- 
manded, 158;  expansion,  158;  ecclesias- 
tical history,  158,  257  ;  Law,  158,  257  ; 
students'  board,  232;  Carstares  and  King 
William's  grant,  124,  257;  relations  be- 
tween Town  Council  and  Professors, 
■258-9  ;  covenanting  students,  259  ;  or- 
ganic changes  made,  259  ;  Professor  of 
Greek,  259;  curriculum  in  Arts,  259-60; 
adoption  of  the  professoriate,  260 ; 
general  expansion,  260-1  ;  Rhetoric 
and  "Belles  Lettres,"  261;  attempts 
to  restore  graduation,  261  ;  admission 
to    Divinity  Hall,    261  ;    commissions, 

262  ;  chairs  of  Law,  262  ;  Faculty  of 
Law,  262  ;  Conveyancing  and  Medical 
Jurisprudence,  262 ;  surgeons  and 
physicians,    262-3  5     Medical    School, 

263  ;  great  activity  in  medical  world, 
263  ;  new  chairs,  263,  270;  Faculty  of 
Medicine,  263  ;  George  Drummond, 
263 ;  Royal  Infirmary,  263  ;  clinical 
teaching,  263 ;  Monro,  264 ;  twelve 
medical  Professors,  264  ;  public  spirit 
of  Town  Council,  264 ;  rapid  growth 
of  medical  lists,  264  ;  ordeal  of  medical 
graduation,  264-5  !  Science  chairs, 
265  ;  Astronomer  Royal,  265  ;  first  gift 
to  the  university,  265  ;  chair  of  music, 
266 ;  new  music  room,  266  ;  Reid 
musical  fund,  266;  "Industrial  mu- 
seum," 267  ;  falling  off  in  Theology, 
267  ;  teaching  dull,  268 ;  students 
neglected,  268  ;  Town  Council  and 
Senatus,  268  ;  shabby  buildings,  268  ; 
present  building  founded,  268;  Hamil- 
ton and  Wilson,  269  ;  SlicKvifery  and 
graduation,  269  ;  Masters  of  the  Col- 
lege, 269  ;  visitation  and  Royal  Com- 
mission, 269-70 ;  scheme  of  studies, 
270  ;  chairs  abolished  and  altered,  270 ; 
recommendations  of  Commission,  270- 
I ;  Senatus  lost  their  case,  27 1  ;  cjuarrels 


with  Town  Council,  272;  entrance 
examination,  272  ;  subjects  f(jr  en- 
trance, 272  ;  disruption  and  Professor- 
ships, 272-3  ;  Test  Act,  273  ;  Act  of 
1858,  273  ;  autumn  classes  in  Agricul- 
ture, 287  ;  new  chairs  founded,  338  ; 
fund  for  original  research,  362 ; 
engineering  degree,  370-2  ;  buildings 
for  engineering  school,  372 

Education  Act,  see  "Acts  of  Parliament  " 

Education,  earliest  record  in  Scotland,  i; 
compulsory  for  eldest  sons  of  nobility, 
3  ;  becomes  more  general,  5  ;  Ninian 
W'inzet's  opinion  on,  18;  thirst  for,  18, 
19;  Act  of  1496,  19;  suffers  through 
Reformation,  76 ;  great  difficulties  to 
contend  with,  77 ;  to  be  universal, 
79  ;  best  brain  to  be  utilised,  79,  303  ; 
town  councils'  interest  in,  83  ;  for  poor 
as  well  as  rich,  97  ;  furtherance  of, 
146;  zeal  of  municipal  authorities, 
161;  highly  valued,  164;  free  to  the 
poor,  176;  elementary  and  higher, 
178-9;  for  all,  179;  retarded  by 
Revised  Code,  179;  "cent,  per  cent." 
of  passes,  179;  compulsory,  196; 
Knox's  aim,  197  ;  high  standard, 
198-9  ;  thrown  back  by  Revised  Code, 
202  ;  three  R's  alone  taught,  202 ; 
various  grades  of,  202  ;  all  to  share  in, 
202  ;  becomes  mechanical,  203  ;  on 
medieval  lines,  214;  retarded  by  Res- 
toration and  Revolution.  259 ;  area 
widened,  276;  university  education  less 
necessary,  277  ;  changed  social  con- 
ditions, 277  ;  fresh  subjects  needed, 
277;  secondary,  300;  Lord  Balfour 
and  Sir  Henry  Craik,  303  ;  Act  of  1878 
insufficient,  311  ;  impulse  given  to,  316 

Education,  theory,  history  and  practice 
of,  294  ;  St  Andrews,  337  ;  Edinburgh, 
338  ;  Arts  course,  342 

Educational  area  widened,  324-5 

Educational  Endowments  Commissioners, 
^  290,  291,  307,  312 

Educational  foundations,  101,  175 

"  Educational  highway,"  303 

Educational  Institute  of  Scotland,  origin, 
179;  aims,  179-80;  importance  of 
religious  training,  180  ;  rapid  growth, 
180;  charter  granted,  180;  member- 
ship, 180;  Honorary  Fellows,  i8o; 
official  organ,  180;  benevolent  fund, 
180;  Parliamentary  Committee,  i8o 

Kducdtional  Neivs,  1 80 

Educational  Society,  Glasgow,  reconsti- 
tuted, 209 ;  Carlyle  and  Rectorship, 
209;  undenominational,  210;  college 
built,  210;  finances,  :io 

Elder,  Mrs,  361 


426 


INDEX 


Eldon,  Lord,  -260 

Election  by  lot,  1 17 

Electrical  Engineering,  372 

Electricity,  Marischal  College,  251 

"  Elementary  education,"  expression  not 
found  in  Act  of  1872,  179,  197  ;  aim 
of  Bell  and  Lancaster,  208 

Elementary  Education  Act  (England),  _5i9 

Elementary  instruction,  in  parish  schools, 
196 

Elementary  schools,  85,  99  ;  S.P.C.K., 
1 81-91  ;  church,  192-7 

Elementary  School  Teachers  Act,  274-5 

Elgin,  Lord,  320 

Elgin,  Pre-reformation  school,  2  ;  music 
school,  98  ;  academy,  162 

Ellesmere,  Lord,  245 

Elphinstone,  Bishop,  53,  60-4,  66,  71,  245 

Emoluments,  Pre-reformation  teachers, 
II,  20-1  ;  St  Andrews,  51  ; 'Glasgow, 
55,  117,  121  ;  Aberdeen,  68-9  ;  at  the 
Reformation,  loi  ;  money  scarce,  102  ; 
fees,  102;  much  reduced,  103;  gifts 
and  bequests,  103-4;  S.  P. C.K.  schools, 
183,  186;  General  Assembly  schools, 
193 ;  book  of  discipline,  196 ;  in- 
creased, 205 ;  Professors,  Glasgow, 
231  ;  bursars,  Aberdeen,  241  ;  Prin- 
cipals and  Professors,  358 

Encouragement  of  learning,  44 

Endowed  Schools  Commission,  173,  285, 
310 

Endowments,  loi,  175,  312 

Engineering,  345 ;  Edinburgh,  338,  367  ; 
Glasgow,    367 ;    Heriot-Watt   college, 

370 

Engineering  Science  degree,  370-3 

English,  324,  340,  342-5 ;  as  a  separate 
branch,  99 ;  in  the  sang  school,  99  ; 
in  the  i8th  century,  174;  universally 
taught,  277;  Dundee,  365 

English  elementary  schools,  179 

English  literature,  in  Glasgow,  234-5  ; 
Aberdeen,  360 

English  to  be  used  in  medical  examina- 
tions, 270 

Entrance  Examination,  147,  153,  260, 
271-2,  277 

Episcopacy,  80,  92,  112,  122,  131-2,  135, 
140,  145,  158,  "226 

Episcopal  Training  College,  Edinburgh, 
212 

Equivalent  Grant,  319-22  ;  memoran- 
dum on,  319-20;  difficulties  in  distri- 
bution of,  319-20;  Parliamentary  com- 
mittee appointed,  320;  minute  opposed 
and  withdrawn,  321  ;  circular  issued, 
321  ;  ojiinion  of  minority  adopted,  321  ; 
matter  for  regret,  321;  unsatisfactory 
use  of  funds,  322 


Erasmus,  description  of  grammarian  in 
England,  8  ;  Greek  class,  52 

Erect io  I^egia,  128:  see  also  "nova 
erectio  " 

Erskine  of  Dun,  25 

Erskyne,  Alexander,  58 

Espionage,  of  students,  231,  242 

Established  Church  Training  College, 
Edinburgh,  210;  Glasgow,  211 

Ethics,  Aberdeen,  134,  251 

Eton, 168 

Euclid  and  Algebra,  270 

Evening  schools,  329 

Examination,  grammar  school,  86 ; 
Regents,  117,  136,  249;  students, 
139;  teachers,  139,  169  ;  entrance,  147, 
153.  260,  339-40;  degrees,  149, 
153;  Barber-surgeons,  154;  S.P.C.K. 
teachers,  186;  Government,  201; 
Presbytery,  201  ;  parents  present  at, 
202  ;  ministers  take  part  in,  202  ;  St 
Andrews'  bursaries,  224;  Glasgow, 
235  ;  paper  for  M.D.  degree,  242  ; 
only  channel  for  graduation,  245  ; 
high  standard,  245  ;  in  Dick  Bequest 
schools,  284  ;  for  degrees,  334,  337 

Examiners,  340;  board  of,  341 

Exeuiption  by  examination,  276 

Expenses  of  three  Oxford  Dons,  36 

Experimental  Philosophy,  Alaerdeen, 
251  ;  Glasgow,  230;  Edinburgh,  260, 
St  Andrews,  223 

Experimental  Science,  324 

Extra-mural  work,  263,  272,  336,  352-3, 
367 

Facilities  for  educational  advancement, 
277 

Faculties  of  Science,  343 

Faculty  of  Arts,  116,  214,  218-9,  ^3^> 
259.  261,  336,  34 1'  353 

Faculty  of  Divinity,  267,  351 

Faculty  of  Laws,  262,  351 

Faculty  of  Medicine,  157,  263,  341,  350 

Faithlie  University,  139-40 

Features  common  to  all  Scottish  Univer- 
sities, 214-5 

Feeding  of  poor  children,  97 

Fees,  in  Ayr,  19  ;  rate  of  school,  102, 
176;  graduation,  236;  matriculation, 
272;  professors',  272;  relief  of  school, 
275  ;  examiners',  300  ;  higher  grade 
schools,  302  ;  in  Universities,  359 

Female  students,  Edinburgh  and  Glas- 
gow, 351  ;  L.L.A.  of  St  Andrews, 
351  ;  graduation,  351 

Females  forbidden  to  enter  University, 

48,  73.  139 
Ferguson  scholarships,  278 

Ferleiginn,  see  Ferleyn,  6 


INDEX 


427 


Ferlcyn,  6 

Ferrerius,  73,  71 

Fettes  Collc(4e,  301,  309 

Fettes,  Sir  William,  309 

Fifani,  219 

Fife,  43 

Findlater,  Dr,  204 

Fleming,  Lord,  16 

Food  and  resources  of  teachers,  197-8 

Football,  134 

Forbes,  John,  132-3 

Forbes,  Hishop  Patrick,  130-3 

Forbes,  William,  140 

Forensic  Medicine,  350  ;  in  Glasgow,  234 

Forestry,  373,  375 

Fortrose,  Academy,  162 

Foundation,  Queen  Mary's,  116;  reduced 

in  value,  1 17 
Foundation  schools,  178 
Fraser,  Dr  James,  239 
Fraser,  Sir  Alexander,  139 
Free  Church  Training  College,  Glasgow, 

211,      294;      Edinburgh,     211,     294; 

Abenleen,  294 
Freedom    of    action,     for    teacher    and 

inspector,  201 
Free    Education,    for    the    poor,     176  ; 

Foundation  schools,  178 
Freeman,   155-6;  education  for  children 

of  poor,  178 
"  Free  School,"  305 
Freiburg,  32,  45 
French,   25,    277,    340,    342,   344;   early 

introduced    into   schools,    99 ;   spoken 

and  taught,  99  ;   Frenchman  sets  up  a 

school,  99-100  ;  taught  in  i8th  century, 

174;  Aberdeen,  Banff  and  Moray,  174; 

St  Andrews,  221-2 
"French  Kyles,"  88 
Friars,  Grey,  Black,  and  White,  138 
Funds,  alienation  of,  101 

Gaelic,  forbidden,  181  ;  vocabulary  made, 
184  ;  catechism,  Baxter's  Call, and  New 
Testament  translated,  184;  required 
for  S. P. CK.  schools,  186;  translation 
of  books  into,  187;  absence  of  teaching 
in,  188 

Gaelic  Societies  of  Edinburgh,  Glasgow 
and  Aberdeen,  187  ;  aims  of  the  three, 
187  ;  investigation  of  Gaelic  districts, 
187  ;  statistics,  187-8 

Galloway,  Alexander,  72,  125-6 

Games,  48,  88,  134 

Geddes,  Professor,  215 

General  Assembly,  appoints  commissions 
on  education,  79  ;  four  acts  on  appoint- 
ment of  teachers,  80 ;  dismissal  of 
Roman  Catholics,  92  ;  Nozhi  Fun- 
datio,  131  ;  deposition  of  Forbes,  133; 


and  Training  Colleges,  210;  appoints 
Education  Committee,  210  ;  graduation 
for  divinity  students,  261  ;  negligence 
in  training  students,  268 

General  Assembly's  Normal  Seminary, 
210;  effect  of  disru])tion,  211 

General  Assembly  and  sessional  schools, 
similar  to  S.  P. C.K.,  192  ;  six  synods  in 
need  of  schools,  192;  Orkney  and 
Shetland,  conflicting  accounts,  192  ; 
circular  letter  sent  round,  193  ;  growth 
of  fund,  193  ;  committee  ready  to 
begin,  193  ;  teachers  and  salaries,  193; 
higher  type  than  S.P.C.K.,  193;  sub- 
jects taught,  193  ;  attendance  and 
efficiency,  193;  unsectarian  character, 
193;  statistics,  193,  194;  libraries,  193; 
Highlands  and  Islands,  194;  Parlia- 
mentary grant,  194  ;  expansion,  194  ; 
disruption,  194  ;  education  committee, 
194 ;  successful  work,  194 ;  Ladies 
Associations,  194-5  ",  discontinuance  of 
schools,  195  ;  disappearance  of 
teachers,  195;  pensions,  195;  religious 
instruction,  195;  training  on  Stow's 
lines,  210 

General  Council,  333  ;  members  and 
functions,  334 

Geneva  Academy,  146 

Geography,  122,  134,  138  ;  omitted,  150; 
in  iXth  century,  162,  202,  216;  Maris- 
chal  College,  251  ;  parish  schools, 
282  ;  in  higher  grade  schools,  324 

Geology  and  Mineralogy,  Edinburgh,  338, 

344' 

Geology,  221,  338,  342 

Geometry,  52,  67,  119,   121,  134,  214 

George  L  229 

German,  340,  342,  344  ;  first  taught  in 
Scotland,  174;  in  schools,  277 

Giles,  medieval  student,  },^,  36 

Gillespie's  school,  James,  178,  305-6 

Gilmorehill,  56 

Girls'  education,  276,  288 

Gladstone,  William  E.,  335 

"Glakis,"  88 

(jlasgow  Academy,  309 

Glasgow,  grammar  school  connection 
with  church,  4  ;  position  among  burghs, 
1 1  ;  educational  bequest,  15  ;  cathedral 
library,  23  ;  University  founded,  i,},  ; 
early  description  of  city,  54  ;  visitation 
of  schools,  86;  High  School,  98; 
English  not  a  separate  branch,  99  ; 
monastic  property,  116;  General 
Assembly  schools,  194;  Sabbath 
schools,  20S ;  Infant  School  Society, 
209 ;  Educational  Society,  209  ;  In- 
firmary commenced,  233  ;  Technical 
College,  373,  411 


428 


INDEX 


Glasgow  Athenaeum  Commercial  College, 

328 
Glasgow,  Bishop  of,  53 
Glasgow  High  School,  98,  301,  309 
Glasgow  School  of  An,  328 
Glasgow     University,     foundation,     53 ; 
charter  granted,  54;  modelled  on  Bo- 
logna and  Louvain,  54  ;  prominence  of 
Faculty  of  Arts,  54 ;    promising  start, 
54  ;    philosophy    and    humanity    chief 
subjects,  55  ;    first    building    in    High 
Street,    56 ;     early     documents,     56 ; 
steady   growth,    57;    four    "nations," 
57 ;    reasons   for   decay,    57 ;    general 
laxity,  58  ;  moribund  institution,   59  ; 
Paedagogium    in    ruins,    59  ;    outward 
forms  retained,  59  ;  relations  between 
Faculty   of  Arts   and  University,  60  ; 
unsuccessful  early  years,  60  ;    famous 
alumni,  61  ;  Shrove  Tuesday  holiday, 
90;    Queen   Mary's   foundation,    116; 
reduced  in   value,   116-7;   numbers  of 
staff,    117;   emoluments,    117;    "new 
foundation,"    117;    scarcity  of  funds, 
117;    preserved    by    Davidson,     117; 
classes    broken    up,     117;     Melville's 
curriculum,  118;  Regent's  duties,  119; 
professoriate,   119;    Snell    exhibitions, 
119;    growth  in  fame,    119;    revenue, 
119;  visitations,  120;  James  Melville's 
opinion  of,   120;  chairs  in  Arts,    121  ; 
chair  of  Humanity,   121  ;  Professor  of 
Medicine,  121  ;  course  of  study,    121  ; 
additional  subjects,    122  ;   session  and 
work,    122;    prosperous   career,    122; 
injurious   effect    of   Episcopacy,    122; 
King's   gifts,    122;    regulations,    122; 
Discipline,    123;   riot,    123;    expenses 
curtailed,  124;  Philosophy  course,  124; 
career  of  prosperity,  124;  royal  grant, 
124  ;  revenues  and  staff  reduced,  226  ; 
stagnation,    226 ;    students   numerous, 
226;    unsatisfactory    condition,     227; 
town  and  gown  riots,  227  ;  Latin  and 
Greek,   228;    attempted  improvement, 
228-9;  new  chairs,  others  revised,  229; 
royal    grants,    229 ;     earnestness    and 
patriotism,  229;    no  Medical  Faculty, 
229;  first  candidate  for  M.D.,  229-30; 
revival    of    Law  and  Medicine,    230  ; 
civic  jurisdiction,   230  ;  printing  press, 
230  ;   acting  of  plays,   230  ;    new  act, 
drastic    measures,    230 ;     Hutcheson's 
example,  231  ;  salaries,  231  ;  residence 
and  common  table,  231 ;  Reid's  account, 
232  ;    Irish,   English,  foreigners,   232  ; 
narrow  means,  232  ;  increase  in  num- 
bers, 232  ;    Iluntcrian  Museum,   233  ; 
medical   students,    233  ;    Andersonian 
and    Portland    Street    schools,     233 ; 


improved  medical  teaching,  234  ;  new 
chairs  founded,  234;  medical  training, 
234-5;  better  times,  235;  Arts  cur- 
riculum, 235  ;  graduation,  examination, 

235  ;     prosperous,    236  ;    management, 

236  ;  Arts'  students,  236  ;    regulations, 
236  ;  new  chairs,  338 

Glasgow  and  West  of  Scotland  Technical 
College,  307,  328 

Glottiana,  57 

Golf,  88,  134 

Goliards,  34-6 

Gordon,  130,  140 

Gordons,  adherents  of  the  old  faith,  74 

Gordon,  Bishop  Alexander,  71 

Gordon's  Hospital,  Robert,  307  ;  con- 
verted into  day  school,  307;  curriculum, 
308  ;  technical  education,  308  ;  School 
of  Art,  308,  4t3 

Govan,  119 

Gowns,  37,  137,  238-9 

"Grace  buke,"  19 

Grades  of  intellect,  202 

Graduates,  bound  to  teach  if  required, 
68,  70 ;  and  College  of  Physicians, 
ij7  ;  increase  in  medical,  336;  and 
degree  of  LL.B.,  350 

Graduation,  in  the  medieval  universities, 
70-1  ;  important  function,  121;  irregu- 
larity, 123;  expenses,  132  ;  ceremonies, 
150;  subjects  in  medieval  times,  214; 
Latin  and  Greek  not  necessary,  231  ; 
in  Arts,  235  ;  records  not  kept,  237  ; 
Aberdeen,  Arts,  242,  252  ;  Edinburgh, 
Arts,  260  ;  not  considered  necessary, 
260;  steady  decline,  260;  Edinburgh, 
medicine,  26-4,  269  ;  cause  of  dispeace 
between  Senatus  and  Town  Council, 
272;  in  Aberdeen,  282  ;  other  univer- 
sities, 282  ;  more  common  now,  283  ; 
Scotch,  higher  standard  than  English, 
283 ;  increase  in,  334,  337 ;  female 
students,  351,  356 

Graduation  theses,  Marischal  College, 
255  ;  Edinburgh,  261 

Grammar,  11,  23,  52,  66,  119,  169,  202, 
214,  282 

Grammar  Book,  98 

Grammarian,  131 

Grammar  school,  4,  5,  8,  9,  13,  15,  19, 
26,  27,  99  ;  master,  96  ;  vacancies,  161  ; 
geography  taught,  162 ;  no  pensions, 
172  ;  course  of  study,  172  ;  teaching  of 
Latin,  228;  teaching  of  Greek,  260; 
weak  in  18th  century,  260;  between 
parish  school  and  University,  283  ; 
under  school-boards,  300-2 
Grant,  annual,  for  four  Scottish  Univer- 
sities, 124,  257;  government,  to 
schools,     200  ;     augmentation,     201  ; 


INDEX 


429 


paid  or  refused  in  full,  202  ;  govern- 
ment, 20.S  ;  change  in  basis  of  grants, 
275  ;  in  Dick  Betjuest  schools,  284-5  ; 
for  science  and  art,  326-7  ;  of  1892  to 
Universities,  351,  357 

Grant,  tyo 

Grant,  Sir  Alexander,  146,  150,  152 

Gratuity  in  lieu  of  salary,  175 

Gray,  Dr  John,  223 

Gray,  John,  308 

Greed  of  the  nobility,  106,  108 

Greek,  5,  24,  25,  260-1,  270,337,340,342, 
344;  first  taught,  26,  49,  52  ;  Knglish 
schools,  49;  i6th  century,  52,  1 18,  172  ; 
Glasgow,  1 18-9,  121,  228,  235  ;  Aber- 
deen, 134, 139, 244-5, 251 ;  Edinburgh, 
149,  259;  teachers'  examination,  169; 
in  17th  antl  iSth  centuries,  172-3; 
conflicting  accounts  of,  1 73;  Edinburgh 
High  School,  173;  Town  Council 
Medal,  173;  in  1872,  173-4;  elemen- 
tary, 215;  Universities  claim  monopoly, 
215;  St  Andrews,  219,  223;  double 
marks,  355  ;  grammar  abolished  in 
Universities,  270 

Greenock,     General     Assembly    school, 

'94 
Gregory's  Optics  and  Astronomy,  261 
Gregorys,  156,  240 
Gregory,  John,  156,  240,  244 
Gregory,  William,  240,  244 
Guild,  Principal,  134,  279 
Guise,  Mary  of,  25 
Gynaecology,  369 

Haddington,  first  life  appointment  of 
teacher,  91 

Hailes,  Lord,  240 

Half-holiday,  87 

Halket,  157 

Hamilton,  Archbishop,  49 

Hamilton,  Lord,  56 

Hamilton,  Patrick,  50 

Hamilton,  Sir  Gavin,  56 

Hamilton,  Sir  William,  70,  269,  272 

"Hamilton  House,"  146 

LLandball,  88 

Handicraft,  78,  184,  185,  196 

ILarelaw,  374 

Harris  Academy,  301 

Hawking,  49 

Hay,  William,  69,  72 

Hebrew,  5,  52,342;  professor  of,  in; 
Glasgow,  1 18  ;  St  Andrews,  134  ;  Aber- 
deen, 136,  138,  141,  250;  Edinburgh, 
153,  267,  268,  272 

Henderson,  1 15 

Henderson,  Alexander,  153,  158 

Henderson,  James,  14 

Hennerson,  John,  21 


Henryson,  R.,  13,  61 

Hepburn,  Prior  John,  46 

Heriot  trustees,  306,  307-2 

Heriot's  Hospital,  George,  foundation, 
177;  converted  into  day  school,  306; 
science  school,  good  results,  306 

Heriot-Watt  College,  328,  411;  origin, 
370;  minute  of  agreement  with  Uni- 
versity, 370-3 ;  details  of  agreement, 
371;  buildings  and  bursaries,  372-3 

Higher  class  schools,  grant  for  buildings, 
300;  common  funtl  for  revenues,  302; 
should  l)e  for  all,  303 

Higher  degrees,  364-5 

Higher  education,  178-9,  300,  311,  316, 
319,  322,  323,  361 

Higher  Grade  Schools,  276,  277,  317-8, 
3231  325;  requirements  and   functions 

of.  323-5 

Highland  and  Agricultural  Society,  powers 
granted  by  charter,  373;  chair  of  Agri- 
culture, 373  ;  Kilmarnock  Dairy  School, 
373;  diplomas  and  certificates,  373-4; 
instruction  in  Agriculture,  374 

Highlands  and  Islands,  many  obstacles 
to  education,  181  ;  Gaelic  forbidden, 
181  ;  lack  of  funds,  181 ;  dearth  of 
churches  and  schools,  181  ;  parish 
school  fund,  181  ;  Assembly  or  Sessional 
schools,  192-4;  great  poverty,  194; 
distance  from  schools,  194 

Highlander's  inability  to  read  Gaelic, 
187 

Hildebrand,  1 14 

His  tor  ia  Ecclesiastica  Gent  is  Scotoriitn, 
127 

History,  Glasgow,  118,  359;  Aberdeen, 
138,  360;  Edinburgh,  149,  262,  360;  St 
Andrews,  219;  parish  schools,  202; 
higher  grade  schools,  324  ;  Arts  course, 

342.  343 
H.^L    Inspector,    report   of,    201  ;    first 

appointment,  202;  increase,  202;  pupil 

teachers'    examination,     213;     annual 

reports,  284 
Holidays,   87-90;    Shrove  Tuesday,    90; 

ordinary   or   autumn,    165;   ripe  corn, 

•65 

Holmes,  Oliver  Wendell,  293 

Home,  98 

"Honoris  causa,"  236,  352 

Horticulture,  375 

Hos|)ital,  177-8,  304-6,  316 

Humanity,  Glasgow,  55,  118,  229;  Aber- 
deen, 141,  244-5;  Edinburgh,  150-1, 
258;  St  Andrews,  223,  356 

"Humanus,"  55 

Hume,  David,  240 

Hume,  Joseph,  253 

Hunter,  222 


430 


INDEX 


Hunterian  Museum,  233 
Huntly,  Marquis  of,  130 
Hutcheson,  Moral  Philosophy,  Glasgow, 

231  ;  lectured  in  English,  231 ;  example 

followed,  231 
llutcheson's  Educational  Trust,  309 
Ilutton  Foundation,  246 
Hydrostatics,  Marischal  College,  251 
Hygiene,  368,  369 

Indian  languages,  343 

Individual  examination,  275 

"  Industrial  Museum,"  267 

Industrial  Universities,  328 

Inefficiency  in  English  schools,  202 

Infant  School  Society,  Glasgow,  209,  210 

Infirmary,  Glasgow,  233 

Inglis,    Lord    President,   220,    245,    273, 

336 

Innes,  C.,  54,58,  59;  intelligence  and  edu- 
cation in  Scotland,  63-4  ;  Boece,  66  ; 
religious  conflict,  74  ;  Aberdeen  Uni- 
versity, 132 

Inquiry  into  the  Human  Mind,  241 

Inspection,  government,  200,  202  ;  im- 
portant change  in,  275 

Institutes  of  Medicine,  in  Glasgow,  234 

Institute  of  Scottish  Teachers  of  agri- 
culture, 287 

Instruction,  five  years'  course,  97-8 

Intellectual  growth,  49 

Intelligence,  202 

Intermediate  certificate,  314,  318,  325; 
conditions  for  candidates,  406  ;  uniform 
curriculum,  406 ;  reason  for  change  in 
examination  date,  406 

International  Private  Law,  350 

Inter-university  discussion,  261 

Intolerance,  93 

Intrant,  219-20 

Inverary,  164 

Inverness  Academy,  162 

Inverury,  conversion  of  burgh  school,  83; 
school  rates,  102 

Irvine,  162  ;  Greek  taught,  173 

Itahan,  340,  342 

Jack,  238 

Jackson,  Sir  John,  417 

James  I,  41,  42  ;  desire  for  harmony,  42, 

43 
James  II,  53 

James  HI,  62 

James  IV,  62,  65,  168 

James  V,  24,  72 

James  VI,  96,  98;  teachers'  pensions, 
101  ;  library  founded  by,  115  ;  Queen 
Mary's  foundation,  116;  Nova  Ficn- 
datio,  130  ;  Aberdeen  University,  131  ; 
Faithlie  University,  139;  Kirk-of- Field, 


145  ;  Edinburgh  University,  146;  St 
Andrews  University,   217 

Jedburgh,  conversion  of  burgh  school,  83 

Johnston,  Arthur,  132,  279 

Joint  university  and  normal  school  train- 
ing, 295-6 

Junior  classes,  339  ;  reasons  for  contmu- 
ance,   339 

Junior  student,  see  also  "  pupil-teacher," 
213,  298,  314,  398 

Jurisdiction  of  the  Kirk,  81 

Jurisprudence,  251;  general,  350;  com- 
parative, 350 

Karnes,  Lord,  240 

Keate,  Dr,  168 

Kelvinside  Academy,  309 

Kennedy,  Bishop,  45,  46 

Kerr,  Dr  John  G. ,  408 

Kilmaniock  Dairy  School,  373 

King  Charles'  University,  133 

King's  Scholar,  298 

"  King's  Student,"  296,  298 

Kinghorn  Grammar  School,  161 

King's  College,  46,  66,  120,  125,  126; 
unsatisfactory  condition,  131  ;  Rail's 
mismanagement,  131;  union  with 
Marischal  College,  133  ;  Principal's 
residence,  134;  course  of  study,  134; 
division  of  revenues,  134.;  Cromwell's 
visit  and  Tower,  1 34  ;  interchange  of 
visits,  135;  Mathematics,  Divinity, 
Hebrew,  136;  Oriental  languages, 
136;  transferred  to  Fraserburgh,  140; 
general  laxity,  237  ;  nepotism,  237  ; 
Queen  Anne's  grant,  238-9;  1715 
Rebellion  affects,  239;  public  lectures 
by  Regents,  239 ;  gift  of  Dr  James 
Fraser,  239  ;  scanty  information,  239  ; 
eminent  Scotsmen,  240  ;  Reid  supports 
"  Regenting,"  241  ;  studies,  residence, 
common  table,  241  ;  degree  of  M.D., 
242  ;  graduate  in  Arts,  242  ;  examina- 
tion, worthless,  242  ;  advance  in 
medical  course,  243 ;  joint  medical 
school,  243  -,  poor  work,  243  ;  in- 
adequate teaching,  243  ;  joint  school 
discontinued,  243 ;  sejjarate  medical 
staff,  244 ;  William  Gregory,  244 ; 
Court  of  Appeal,  244  ;  age  of  entrants, 
244  ;  curriculum,  244;  classics,  poor, 
244  ;  plan  of  work,  244-5 ;  high 
standard  demanded,  245  ;  prizes,  245 ; 
election  of  Rector,  245;  valuable 
gifts,  245-6 ;  Ilutton  Foundation,  246  ; 
Simpson  prizes,  246  ;  permanent  union, 
246 

King's  Quair,  62 

Kinioss,  23 

Kirkland,  185 


INDEX 


431 


Kirk-of-Field,  145 

Kirk  Session  Records,  197  ;  dearth  of 
schools,  197 

Kirkwall,  Pre-reformation  school,  2  ; 
educational  bequest,  15  ;  Imrgh  school, 
164 

Knox,  John,  50,  61,  74,  158  ;  educational 
scheme,  76;  in  detail,  77-9;  Knox 
and  Winzet,  much  in  common,  78,  79  ; 
all  children  to  be  taught,  97  ;  Book  of 
Discipline,  105  ;  high  ideal  of  educa- 
tion, 107-8;  at  vSt  Andrews,  115; 
Edinburgh,  145;  school  in  every  parish, 
181  ;  scheme,  the  basis  of  Scottish 
education,  196;  great  foresight,  196; 
remuneration  of  teachers,  196;  teachers' 
belief  in,  198;  splendid  scheme,  198; 
"Kirk  and  universities,"  261 

Knox,  William,  417 

L.L.A.  of  St  Andrews,  351 

LL.B.  degree,  350-2 

LL.D.  degree,  352 

Ladies  associations,  education  in  the 
Highlands,  194;  useful  work,  194-5; 
aid  to  teachers,   195 

"  Ladlenian,"  232 

Lavicnt  for  the  Makaris,  62 

Lancaster,  207,  208 

Landmarks  in  history  of  Scottish  Uni- 
versities, 333 

Languages  neglected,  215 

Latin,  church  and  school,  i,  2,  25;  taught 
and  spoken,  24,  52,  67,  78,  86,  87,  139; 
deterioration,  141  ;  Edinburgh  Uni- 
versity, 147-9;  disputations,  150; 
St  Andrews,  151,  219;  Glasgow,  151  ; 
Aberdeen,  151,  244,  251;  teachers' 
examinations,  169;  1 8th  century  gram- 
mar schools,  1 72  ;  Aberdeen,  Banff  and 
Moray,  174;  General  Assembly  schools, 
193;  not  a  university  subject,  215; 
schools  claim  monopoly,  215  ;  tutorial 
classes,  215;  no  professor  of,  215; 
ceases  to  be  infra-academical,  215; 
revived  in  Glasgow,  228  ;  lecturing  in, 
discontinued,  231  ;  Arts  curriculum, 
235;  important  in  Aberdeen,  279; 
elementary,  282 ;  spoken  in  Dick 
Bequest  schools,  282  ;  Arts  course,  337, 
342;  preliminary  examination,  340; 
science  degree,  344;  double  marks,  355 

Latinity  in  the  north,  279,  282 

Laureation  fees,  260 

Laurie,  Principal,  370 

Laurie,  Professor,  70,  284,  287,  304 

Law,  Aberdeen,  67,  129;  Edinburgh, 
144,  150,  151,257,258;  Glasgow,  230, 
436 ;  Arts  course,  342  ;  of  Nations, 
350;    of  Scotland  and  England,   350 


Lawrence  of  Lindores,  43 

Lawson,  James,  145,   [47 

Layman  as  Principal,  152 

Leaving  Certificate  Examination,  intro- 
duced, 212,  213;  pupil  teachers,  213; 
Dick  Bequest  Schools,  288;  origin  and 
growth,  313;  group  certificate,  313; 
intermediate  certificate,  314;  value  of 
teacher's  opinion,  314;  army  candi- 
dates, 314-5;  technical  and  com- 
mercial certificates,  315;  teaching 
improved  by,  315;  progress  in  lan- 
guages and  science,  316;  accepted  as 
university  preliminary  examination,  3 1  7, 
407;  statistics,  317;  "honours  grade'' 
discontinued,  325  ;  science  subjects, 
326  ;  increase  in  difficulty,  331  ;  and 
preliminary  examination,  341,  407; 
regulations  still  under  consideration, 
406 ;  general  conditions  indicated,  407 

Lectureships,  365,  372 

Leeche,  132 

Leech  man,  231 

Legal  science  in  foreign  universities,  258, 
262 

Les^c'ftds  of  the  Saints,  63 

Leith  High  School,  161 

Leith  Nautical  College,  328,  413 

"  Leprosy  of  poperie,"  81 

Leslie,  Joiin,  125 

Leslie,  William,  133,  279 

Leslie's  History,  66 

Leven  and  Melville,  Earl  of,  357 

Leyden,  258 

Liberality  of  magistrates,  175 

Libraries,   23,   101,    115,    140,    153,    193, 

.239 
Lichton,  John,  54 

Liddell,  Dr,  140 

Literary  society,  232 

Literature,  in  Scotland  in  the  i6th  century, 

74 
Little-Go,  Cambridge,  subjects  taught  in 

parish  schools,  197 
Little,  145 
Living  expenses,  cheap  in  i8th  century, 

.'97 
Livingstone,  Lady,  92 
Local  Taxation  Account  Act,  326 
Lochleven,  23 
Logic,  337,  342;  St  Andrews,  52,  215; 

Aberdeen,    67,     134,    244.    246,    251  ; 

Glasgow,    121,   235;    Edinburgh,    261 
Logie,  course  of  study  at,  25,  97 
Loretto,  301,  309 
Lothian,  43 
Lothiani,  219 
Loudoniana,  57 
Louise,  Princess,  361 
Low,  Professor,  266 


432 


INDEX 


Lowlands,  General  Assembly  schools,  194 
Lyndsay  of  the  Mount,  Sir  David,  16,  20, 

50,  74,  167-8 
Lyon,  50 
Lyon,  William  the,  10 

M.A.  degree,  52,  336,  340;  Aberdeen, 
46,  143,  252,  ■253;  Glasgow,  120,  236; 
Edinburgh,  146,  149,  260,  271  ;  St 
Andrews,  217;  subjects  imperative  for, 
2ic;,  337,  342;  examination  a  sham, 
253;  value  reduced  of  Scottish,  283; 
options  and  regulations,  342  ;  honours, 

M.B.  degree,  336,  349,  366 

M.D.  degree,  336,  349,  366;  Glasgow, 
229,  235-6 ;  Aberdeen,  242,  243-4, 
252  ;  Edinburgh,  264-6  ;  examination 
paper  for,  242 

Macdougall,  Rev.  P.  €.,  273 

McEwan,  William,  417 

Maclaurin,  Colin,  156,  240,  250,  260 

Macmorran,  John,  90 

McNeill,  Duncan,  Lord  Advocate,   189, 

336 

McRobert,  Hon.  A.,  417 

Madras  College,  161 

Magistrand,  148,  236,  260;  year,  244 

Magnetism,  Marischal  College,  251 

Major  or  Mair,  John,  50;  description  of 
Glasgow,  54,  61 

Maiden,   Professor,  original    meaning  of 
univcrsitas,  3  r 

Mansfield,  Earl,  336 

Manual  work,  324 

Marenses,  139 

Marischal  College,  46  ;  Principal  Brown, 
128;  foundation,  129;  unsatisfactory 
condition,  131;  Rait's  mismanagement, 
131  ;  old  foundation  restored,  131  ; 
union  with  King's  College,  133  ;  divi- 
sion of  revenues,  1 34 ;  new  school 
erected,  135;  chairs  in  Mathematics, 
Divinity,  Hebrew,  136  ;  endowment, 
1 38  ;  management  and  staff,  1 38  ; 
residential,  138;  curriculum,  139; 
regulations,  139;  charter  granted,  139; 
building,  139;  Liddell  bequest,  140; 
various  gifts,  140;  Mathematics,  140; 
Divinity,  140;  fire,  140-1 ;  Protest- 
ant character,  141  ;  bursaries,  141  ; 
Hebrew  lectureship,  141  ;  course  of 
instruction,  14 1 ;  lecturer  in  Humanity, 
141  ;    endowments    and    new    school, 

141  ;  charter  confirmed,  141  ;  uni- 
versity  rank,    142  ;    uneventful   years, 

142  ;  courses  in  1647,  142  ;  courses  in 
1690,  142,  143;  wrangling  with  King's, 
237;  Queen  Anne's  grant,  238-9; 
1 71 5  Rebellion  affects,  239;   eminent 


Scotsmen,  240 ;  medical  education, 
243  ;  medical  school,  243  ;  discontinu- 
ance of  school,  243;  permanent  union, 
246;  three  reforms,  249;  repairs  need- 
ed, 250;  appeal  to  Scots  Parliament, 
250  ;  gift  of  vacant  stipends,  250 ; 
changes  brought  by  Rebellion,  250; 
College  temporarily  closed,  250;  Greek, 
Mathematics,  250;  progressive,  250; 
heavy  demands  on  Principal,  250  ; 
Experimental  Philosophy,  251 ;  Oriental 
languages,  251  ;  additions  and  sub- 
scriptions, 251  ;  new  curriculum,  251  ; 
union  troubles,  252  ;  observatory,  252  ; 
academic  activity,  252 ;  new  lecture- 
ships, 252;  degree  of  M.D.,  252; 
degree  of  M.A.,  252;  examination  a 
sham,  253 ;  commission  appointed, 
253;  College  rebuilt  and  chairs  founded, 
254 ;  bursaries  etc.,  254 ;  jealousy 
prevents  union,  254;  union  effected  by 
Inglis,  254;  graduation  thesis,  255; 
programme  of  lectures,  256 
Marischal,  Earl,  129,  138,  239,  250 
Marsilliers,  Pierre  de,  52 
Mary,  Queen  of  Scots,  57,  59;  petitioned 
on  education,  79;  teachers'  pensions, 
101;  letter  about  Glasgow,  116; 
founded  bursaries,  116;  visit  to  Aber- 
deen, 125 
Master,  6,  7,  see  a/jo  "Rector";  English 
grammar  school,  36,  37  ;  fined  for  non- 
attendance,  58  ;  appointment  of  burgh 
and  parish  school,  80,  82,  83  ;  Con- 
fession of  Faith,  85  ;  high  standard 
demanded,  90,  91  ;  insecure  position, 
92;  dignity  of  position  lowered,  96; 
semi-clerical  functions,  96 ;  forbidden  to 
be  ministers,  96;  exceptions  made,  97; 
Sunday  duties,  100;  appointment,  169 

Master  of  Arts,  245 

Master  of  Method,  298 

Materia  Medica,  349 ;  Glasgow,  234 ; 
Aberdeen,  244,  246,  252  ;  Edinburgh, 
263  ;  St  Andrews,  360 

Mathematical  instruments,  239 

Mathematical  research,  156 

Mathematics,  162,  193,  203,  324,  337, 
.340,  .34.3.  344,  35.=;,  37 »  ;  St  Andrews, 
115,  218,  221,  223;  Glasgow,  118,  229, 
235;  Aberdeen,  136,  238,  244,  251  ; 
Edinburgh,   153,   258,   260,  262 

Matriculation,  215 

Matriculatifm  Roll,  of  St  Andrews,  216 

Maxwell,  Professor  Clerk,  215,  246 

Meadowbank,  Lord,  170 

Mechanical  drawing,  285 

Mechanical  engineering,  372 

Mechanics,  Marischal  College,  251  ; 
Heriot-Watt,  371 


INDEX 


433 


Medieval,  learning,  32  ;  survival,  148  ; 
education,  214;  scholasticism,  215 

Medical  Act,  349 

Medical  Course,  348-50 ;  four  examina- 
tions, 349 ;    honours  dejijree,  349 

Medical  Graduation,  in  Edinburgh,  264-5 

Medical  incorporation,  233 

Medical  Jurisprudence,  349  ;  Aberdeen, 
244,   252  ;    Edinburgh,  263 

Medical  Scho<d,  156,  263 

Medical  teaching,  not  systematic,  233 ; 
discouraged  by  Church,  234;  no 
Anatomy  Act,  234;  want  of  means, 
234;  improvement,  234;  revival  in 
Aberdeen,  242 

Medical  Training,  English  versus  Scottish, 

234-5 

Medicine,  155,  223,  349,  368;  Aberdeen, 
67,  129,  250;  Glasgow,  121,  229,  230; 
Edinburgh,  154,  157,263;  St  Andrews, 
222,  360,  365 

Mediciner,  129,  131,  242,  243 

Melbourne,  Lord,  271 

Melville,  Adam,  13 

Melville,  Andrew,  13,  26,  52,  61,  iii, 
112,  113;  untiring  energy,  114;  aca- 
demic influence,  114;  Principal  in 
Glasgow,  1 18;  energy  and  modern 
spirit,  118;  transferred  to  St  Andrews, 
120;  university  scheme,  128,  129,  138, 
158 

Melville,  James,  25,  52,  109,  iii,  112, 
119,   120 

Melville,  Lord,  225 

Melvin,  Dr,  168 

Mendicant  friars,  37  ;  students,  37 

Menial  services,  148,  223 

Mensuration,  193 

Mental  cuUiire,  353 

Mental  philosophy,  337,  343 

Menzies,  Professor,  283 

Mercantile  Law,  350 

Merchant  Company  of  Edinburgh,  modest 
beginning,  177;  far-reaching  results, 
177;  pioneers  in  reform  movement, 
304  ;  Ilospitals  become  day  schools, 
304-5  ;  important  change,  305 ;  steady 
growth,  305  ;   advantages  and  results, 

305 
Merchant     Maiden     Hospital,     modest 

beginning,  177;  its  object,  and  growth, 

304 

Merchant  Taylors'  School,  London,  207 

Merchiston  Castle  School,  301,  309 

Merschell,  John,  12 

Merton  College,  Oxford,  2 

Metaphysics,  153;  imperative  for  degree, 
215;  iSlh  century,  241;  Marischal 
College,  251;  Edinburgh,  261;  Arts 
course,  342 

K.  E. 


Meteorology,  368 

Microscopy,  368 

Middleton,  X'ice- Principal,  134 

Midwifery,  269,349;  Glasgow,  233,  234; 

Aberdeen,  244,  246,  252  ;  Edinijurgh, 

263  ;    St  Andrews,  360 
Military   Surgery,    chair   in    FIdinburgh, 

264 
Milne  Bequest,  289;    Trust  established, 

289;  satisfactory  results,  289-90;  Trust 

Deed  superseded,  290  ;  details  of  new 

scheme,    290 ;    "  religious   and    moral 

instruction,"  290 
Milne,  Colonel  Alex.,  417 
Milne,  Dr,  289 
Mineralogy,  221 
Mining,  School  of,  413 
Model  Schools,  209-10 
Modern  languages,  221,  343 
Moffat,  result  of  excessive   punishment, 

94 
Moir,  Principal,  141 

Monastic  system,  304 

Monboddo,  Lord,  173,  240 

Moncrieff,  Lord,  336 

Money    value,     38,    69 ;    impossible    to 

estimate,  108,  197;  low  currency,  147; 

iSth  century,  172;  diminished,  187 
Monitorial  system,  207 
Monk,  General,  134-5 
Monks,  as  doctors,  154 
Monro  "  Secundus,"  Alexander,  264 
Montrose,  115 
Montrose,  Earl  of,  133,  217 
Montrose,  school  endowed  by  Robert  the 

Bruce,  1  ;  high  reputation  for  learning, 

26  ;    teacher's   tenure   of    office,    1 70 ; 

academy,  309 
Moral  Philosophy,  337,  342;  St  Andrews, 

219;    Glasgow,    235;    Aberdeen,  244, 

251  ;  Edinburgh,  261,  269,  273 
Moral   statistics   of    the    Highlands   and 

Lslands,   192 
Moravienses,  139 
Moray,  Bishop  of,  30 
Moray,  Earl  of,  362 
Moray  House,  21 1 
Moray,  Regent,  125 
Morgan  Academy,  301 
Morgan,  Dr,  213.  396 
Mortifications,  101,   102 
Motto  of  Earl  Marischal,  139 
Mulcaster,  207 
Mul linger,    medieval    conception     of    a 

university,  31,  55 
Municipal  power,  154 
Muninienta,  56,  57,  227 
Munro,  Hew,  12 
Murray,  William,  16S 
Museum  of  Natural  History,  272 

28 


434 


INDEX 


Mus.  Bac.  degree,  360 

Mus.  Doc.  degree,  360 

Music,  52,  67  ;  prominent  in  middle  ages, 
98 ;  decay  after  Reformation,  98  ; 
endowed  schools,  98 ;  at  lykewakes 
and  funerals,  99  ;  Glasgow  University, 
119;  professed  by  teachers,  169  ;  slow 
but  steady  growth,  174;  graduation 
subject,  214,  360  ;  chair  in  Edinburgh, 
265;  private  foundation,  266;  degrees, 
360 

Musselburgh,  98 

Myrtown,  Sir  William,  16 

"Nation,"  30,  39,  43,  57,  139,  219,  236, 

333 

National   Diploma,  in   agriculture,   374 ; 

in  dairying,  374 

Nationalism  of  school  system,  298 

Natural  complement  of  university  pro- 
motion, 354 

Natural  History,  St  Andrews,  221,  356  ; 
Glasgow,  234;  Aberdeen,  251,  334; 
Edinburgh,  263 

Natural  Philosophy,  337,  342,  343  ;  Glas- 
gow, 118,  235;  St  Andrews,  215,  219, 
223,  334;  Aberdeen,  238,  244;  Edin- 
burgh, 260 

Natural  Science,  337 

Natural  Theology,  Marischal  College,  251 

Nature  Study,  277 

Navigation,  162,  175,  193 

Nepotism,  in  Aberdeen  University,  237 

"  New  Foundation,"  117,  118 

Newlands,  Right  Hon.  Lord,  417 

New  Spalding  Club,  362 

Newton,  Adam,  15  r 

Newton's  Principia,  261 

Niecks,  Professor,  266 

Non-admission  of  females,  48  ,73,  139 

Northern  boy  well  trained,  280 

Nova  eredio,  119-20 

Nova  FunJatio,  128-31,  137,  138 

Nova  Schola  Facidtatis,  42 

Nairn,  Duncan,  147 

Nairn,  General  Assembly  School,  194 

Oath  of  allegiance,  249 

Officers  and  Graduates  of  King^s  College, 

128 
Open  door  policy,  341 
Ophthalmology,  369 
Optics,  Marischal  College,  251 
Options,  for  M.A.  degree,  341,  342,  359; 

LL.B.  degree,  350 
Oriental  languages,  229,  238,  251 
Original  research,  354,  361  ;  publications 

in    Aberdeen,   362 ;    interchange    with 

other  universities,  362 
Orkney  and  Shetland,  conflicting  accounts 


of  education,   192  ;   trade  with   main- 
land,   192  ;  no  Gaelic,    192 

Over- pressure,  331,  403 

Overtoun,  Lord,  292 

Paedagogium,  41,  54,  56,  39,  60 

Paedagogy,  116,  see  "  I'aedagogium  " 

"  Paid'eliing,"   148 

Painting,  175 

Paisley,    school  visitation,    86 ;    address, 
303  ;  technical  college,  413 

Papal  schism,  39,  53 

Parchment,  200 

Parents  fined  for  complaining,  167 

Parish,  school  in  every,  181,  199,  200, 
300 

Paris,  university,  31 

Parliamentary  Commission,  136,  244,  253 

Parliamentary  parishes,  199 

Parochial  or  Parish  Schools,  80,  164, 
167  ;  high  standard,  178  ;  successful 
existence,  179;  efficient  education  for 
all,  179  ;  slackening  of  connection  with 
Church,  195  ;  varied  character  of  work, 
196;  original  aim,  196;  dearth  in 
Highlands  and  Ayrshire,  197  ;  election 
of  teacher,  198;  school  in  every  parish, 
199  ;  erection  of  buildings,  200  ;  salary 
and  inspection,  200 ;  augmentation 
grant,  201 ;  government  list,  small,  201 ; 
deterioration,  202-3  >  Scottish  code, 
204  ;  return  to  former  aim,  204 ;  high 
standard,  204;  reminiscence  of  Aber- 
deenshire, 204  ;  description  of  school 
house,  204 ;  higher  subjects,  282 ; 
separate  fees,  282 ;  and  secondary 
education,  302  ;  want  of  system,  302 

Parr,  Dr,  168 

Pathology,    349,    362,   369;    Edinburgh, 
264  ;  Glasgow,  360  ;  St  Andrews,  360 
Patrick,  Dr,  Air  Burgh  School,  10 
Patriotic  duty,  303 

Patronage,  Church  v.  lay,  4  ;  transference 
from  Church  to  municipal  authority, 
82  ;  Canongate  school  teacher,  82  ; 
decision  of  Council  of  Perth,  82 ; 
Church  and  Town  Council,  161  ;  Perth 
Town  Council,  163  ;  Crown  and  Town, 
334  ;  of  professorships,  356-7 ;  of 
university  chairs,  359 
Paul,  Dr,  205 

Payment  by  results,  21,  202,  275,  302 
Payment  in  kind,  103,  176,  185,  193 
Peebles,    Burgh    records,    9 ;    Grammar 
school,    9;    payment    by    result,    21; 
penalty     for     neglect     of    duty,    22; 
penalty    for   keeping   private   schools, 
84;  teacher's  house,   103 
Pensions,  Munro,  12  ;  none  in  early  days, 
94-5 ;    small   presents,    96 ;    no    legal 


INDEX 


435 


claims  for,  96  ;  Royal  pensions,  101  ; 
sometimes  granted,  171-2;  S.P.C.K., 
187;  General  Assembly  schools,  195  ; 
under  Act  of  1872,  274,  300;  uni- 
versity, 357-8 ;  under  Education  Act 
of  njoH,  405 

"  Peo])le's  University,"  409 

Percentage  of  pass,  aim  under  revised 
code,  203  ;  demoralising  effect,  203  ; 
channel  of  promotion,  203 

Perth,  earliest  known  school,  1  ;  Gram- 
mar school,  5  ;  school  visitation,  86 ; 
oldest  academv  in  Scotland,  162  ;  holi- 
day season,  165 

Pettigrew,  Mrs  Bell,  416 

Philip  Bequest,  290 

Philosophical  subjects,  137 

Philosophy,  362;  Glasgow,  55,  124; 
Aberdeen,  67,  241  ;  St  Andrews,  107  ; 
Edinburgh,  157,  258 

Physicians,  156,  262,  263 

Physics,  121,  134,  138,  349,  368,  371 

Physiology,  344,  349,  369  ;  St  Andrews, 
223  ;  Aberdeen,  244,  246,  252 

Pierson,  266 

Pitcairne,  156,  157 

"  Plane  donat,"  19 

Playfair,  Sir  Hugh  Lyon,  225 

Playgrounds,  177 

Plough  and  pulpit,  199;  Lady  Aber- 
crombie's  gardener,  199 

Pneumatics,  St  Andrews,  215  ;  Marischal 
College,  251 

Political  Economy,  342,  350  ;  Aberdeen, 
240,  245  ;  Edinburgh,  270;  Glasgow,  360 

Political  Sciences,  Glasgow,  118;  Maris- 
chal College,  251 

Popes,  Lucius,  i  ;  Innocent  IV,  r  ; 
Clement  VII,  39  ;  Urban,  39  ;  Bene- 
dict XIII,  40;  Martin  V,  42;  Pius  II, 
46  ;  Nicholas  V,  53  ;  Alexander  VI, 
62;  Urban  VIII,   127 

Popery,  139 

Portland,  Duke  of,  357 

Portland  Street  School,  233 

Post-graduate  study,  354,  361 

Poultry-keeping,  375 

Poverty  in  the  Highlands,  194 

Practical  Pharmacy,  223 

Prayer,  87,  223-4,  227,  238 

Preaching  Friars  of  Glasgow,  56,  116 

Preliminary  Examination,  339,  340  ; 
subjects  for,  340;  regulations,  340; 
advantages,  340-1  ;  pass  standard,  341  ; 
in  medical  course,  349 

"  Preparatory  department,"  301 

Presbyterians,  all  eligible  as  parish  school 
teachers,  195,  205 

Presbytery,  80,  93,  113.  115,  122,  133, 
136,  145,  158,  2:6 


Prestongrange,  Lord,  153 

Pretender,  James  VIII,  239 
Primacy,  seat  of,  109 
Primary  Schools,  176,  300,  311;  liuild- 
ings,  392  ;  accommodation  and  staff, 
392-3 ;  typ)e  of  education  changes, 
393  ;  promotion  and  discipline,  393 ; 
defective  children,  393  ;  Act  of  1908, 
394,  395  ;  continuation  classes,  394  ; 
tenure  of  office  and  pensions,  395  ; 
District  Education  Fund,  395 

"Princely  Chandos,"  222 

Principal,  66,  117,  120,  129,  138,  250, 
358;  and  Professor  of  Divinity,  152  ; 
St  Andrews,  218;  Glasgow,  227,  231  ; 
Aberdeen,  238,  243,  250 

"  Principalis  Collegii,"  first  used  by 
Elphinstone,  66 

Pringle,  Francis,  222 

Printing,  school  books,  25  ;  first  intro- 
duced into  Scotland,  69  ;  in  its  infancy, 
154;  -press  in  Glasgow  University,  230 

Private  Schools,  forbidden,  19,  84 ;  per- 
mitted for  girls,  84;  more  general,  85, 
164 ;  encouraged  by  Town  Councils,  164 

Private  teachers  of  law,  258 

Privy  Council  on  Education  appointed, 
210;  training  colleges,  210;  grants  for 
training  colleges,  211  ;  contribution  to 
Free  Church  colleges,  211 

Prizes,  earliest  record  of,  168;  little  in 
use,  169;  Aberdeen,  Arts  classes,  245 

Professorial  system,  119,  214,  242 

Professors,  in  all  four  Universities,  215 
St  Andrews,    218  ;  unsatisfactory  con 
duct,    227  ;    appointment    of,    227-8 
requirements,  228  ;    Latin  and  Greek, 
228;    fees   in    Glasgow,    231;    not   to 
examine  their  own  pupils,   271 

Programme  of  lectures,  Marischal  College, 
256 

Promotion  in  schools,  86 

"  Promotion  of  higher  education,"  300, 30 1 

Protestant  students,  13-; 

Provincial  Committees,  297  ;  duties  and 
members,  297  ;  stuiients  in  training, 
297  ;  senior  and  junior  students,  298  ; 
admission  of  students,  298 ;  model 
lessons,  298 ;  imjjortant  advance  in 
education,  298 ;  established,  396-7 ; 
functions,  397 

Provost,  46 

"  Prj-mar,"   19 

Psalm-book,  84 

Psychology,  369 

Public  disputation,  235 

Pulilic  health,  345,  349  ;  Edinburgh,  360, 
367;  in  all  four  universities,  367; 
stringent  regulations  for  diploma,  367-8 

Public  International  Law,  350 


436 


INDEX 


Public  Law,  342 

Pulteney,  Sir  William,  265 

Pumpherston,  374 

Punishment,  27,  37;  for  keeping  private 
schools,  84  ;  attached  to  certain  games, 
88 ;  for  severe  discipline,  94  ;  riot  in 
Glasgow,  123  ;  in  schools,  165,  166  ; 
times  and  methods,  166-8 

Pupil-teachers,  introduction  of  system,  212; 
examinations,  212  ;  normal  school 
training,  212;  leaving  certificate  exami- 
nation, 212;  curriculum  raised,  212; 
teaching  hours,  213  ;  new  system,  213  ; 
bursaries,  213  ;  advance  in  attainments, 
295;  before  and  after  1873,  295  ;  short- 
age in  supply,  296  ;  effect  of  Provincial 
Committees,  298  ;  probable  end  to  sys- 
tem, 298-9  ;  system  doomed,  393 

Purdie,  Professor,  416 

Quackery  rampant,  234 

Quadrivium,  67,  119,  214 

Quarter  o'  Greek,  199 

Queelin  (cooling)  stane,  204,  205 

Queen  Margaret  College,  foundation  and 

growth,  361 ;  transferred  to  University, 

361 

R's,  the  three,  Revised  Code,  202  ;  Eng- 
lish elementary  schools,  202 
Rait,  69,  71,  128 
Rait,  David,  130-1,  133 
Ramsay,  Allan,  240 
Ramsay,  Andrew,  153-4 
Ray,  John,  7 

Recitation  in  Aberdeen,  87 
Recreation,  87 

Rector,  status,  6-8  ;  discipline  in  Oxford 
and    Cambridge,    7 ;    appointment  of, 
2 1  ;    electors,   43-4  ;    excellent   choice 
by  students,    44  ;    appointment  of  as- 
sistants, 91  ;  in  book  of  discipline,  107  ; 
Marischal  College,   139;  St  Andrews, 
217;  United  College,  219-20  ;  resident 
head  in  St  Andrews,  220  ;    Principals 
and    Professors,    ineligible,     220 ;     in 
Glasgow,  227,  236  ;  in  Aberdeen,  244; 
election  of,  333,  335 
Rectorial  court,  253 
Red  gowns,  137 
Reform  Act,  164 
Reformation,  effect  on  school  patronage, 

82  ;  injury  to  Universities,  108-9 
Reformation  ofthe  college  of  Aberdeen,  1 29 
Reform  of  hospital  system,  304-6 
Regent,  56,  67,  70,   114-5,   117-8,   120, 
122,  129, 133,  136, 138-9,  141,  148-51, 
153, 215,  226,  231,  238-9,  241,  258 
Regenting,  56,  130,  135,214,226,241-2, 
251,  260,  268 


Reginald,      Tweedside      and      Norham 

schools,  5 
Reid  ,132 
Reid,  Bishop,  144 
Reid,  General,  266,  360 
Reid,  Thomas,   140,   226,  231-2,   235-6, 

240-1 
Religious  conflict,  74,  125 
Religious  element,  100 
Religious  instruction,  school  subject,  175; 

inspection  of,  195  ;  grants  for  Assembly 

schools,     195;     grants    for    S.P.C.K. 

schools,    195  ;  in  parish  schools,  200  ; 

examination  in,  202 
Report,  government,  201 
Report  of  Assistant  Commissioners,  302 
Report  of  Endowed  Schools  Commission, 

Greek  taught,  173 
Report  on  Burgh  Schools,  174 
Report  on  Secondary  education,  317 
Representative  Council,  students',  346 
Research  Fellow,  362 
Residence,   32,    51,    67,    119,    122,    135, 

138,  147,  214,   216,    218,  224,   231-2, 

241-2 
Residue  Grant,  325-6 
Revised  Code,    179,   202  ;  pernicious  in- 
fluence, 202  ;  dead  level  for  all,  203  ; 

demoralising  effect,  203 
Rhetoric,  St  Andrews,  214,  222;  King's 

College,  67,   134,  244;  Glasgow,  119; 

Edinburgh,    149,   261  ;    burgh  school, 

172  ;  Arts  course,  337 
Richmond,  fifth  Duke  of,  246;  sixth  Duke 

of,  246 
Right  of  visitation.  Presbytery,  198 
Rigidity  of  rules,  148 
RoVjertson,  John,  112 
Robertson,  Lord,  170 
Rollock,  Hercules,  89,  96 
Rollock,  Robert,  147-50,  152,  260 
Roman  Catholics,  excluded  from   office, 

92-3;     in    South    Uist    school,     193; 

church  and  school  connection,  198 
Roman  Catholic  Training  College,  Glas- 
gow, 294 
Roman  Law,  258,  342 
Ross,  Alexander,  133 
Rotation  of  Regents,  149,  153 
Rothesaiana,  57 
Row,  John,  5,  25,  82 
Row,  Principal,  134-5,  140-1 
Royal   Agricultural  Society  of  England, 

374 
Royal    College    of    Physicians,     156-7  ; 

patent    received,     157  ;    conditions    of 

patent,  157 
Royal  College  of  Surgeons,    155;  origin 

of  Edinburgh  medical  school,  155 
Royal  Commission,   270,  336  ;    to  frame 


INDEX 


437 


rules  for  all  universities,  270  ;  scheme 
of  studies,  270;  constitution  of  tclin- 
burgh  University,  270  ;  chairs  altered 
or  abolished,  270  ;  outstanding  reconi- 
mendations,  270-1  ;  unfavourable  criti- 
cism, 271  ;  breadth  of  vision,  271  ;  no 
results,  at  first,  271  ;  on  Act  ol  1858, 
335-7  ;  caution  urged  in  founding 
chairs,  338 

Royal  Infirmary,  (Jlasgow,  369 

Kuddiman,  98 

Rule,  Vice-l'rincipal,  134 

Rural  Kconomy,  school  of,  374 

Rutherford,  1 15 

Ruthcrfurd,  Andrew,  189 

Sabbath  Schools,  Glasgow,  208 
Sacrobosco,  spheres  ol,  215,  260 
Salaries,  school-masters,  22-3  ;  Glasgow 
and  Abeidcen  Universities,  66,  68;  paid 
by    church,    80;     burgh    school,    83; 
reduction    of    professors',     109  ;      tirst 
Rector  in  Edinburgh,   147  ;  Professors 
of  medicine  in  Edinburgh,   157  ;  con- 
tributions  towards  teachers',    175  ;   in 
S.P.C.K.   schools,    186,    188,    190-1  ; 
General      Assembly     schools,       193  ; 
Ladies  Associations,   195;    teachers  in 
18th  century,   197  ;    Government  sup- 
plies, 200  ;  increase  of  teaciiers',  200  ; 
in  Glasgow,  231  ;  Aberdeen  librarian, 
239  ;      professors,      359 ;       secondary 
schools,  405 
Salermo,  university,  30 
Sands,  Patrick,  152 
Sang  schools,  22-3,  98 
Sanitary  Law,  368 
Sanskrit,  342 

Satyre  0/  the  Thrie  Estaitis,  74 
St  Andrews  Grammar  School,  161 
St  Andrews  University,  foundation  of,  2  ; 
earliest  school,  2  ;  first  Scottish 
University,  40;  ancient  historic  in- 
terest, 40;  charter  granted,  41; 
arrival  of  Papal  Bulls,  41  ;  proposed 
transference  to  Perth,  42  ;  modelled  on 
Paris,  43  ;  mode  of  rector's  election, 
43  ;  date  of  foundation,  45 ;  first 
local  habitation,  45 ;  St  Salvator's 
founded,  45  ;  principal  University  in 
Scotland,  50  ;  number  of  students  and 
teachers,  51,  lamentable  condition, 
108  ;  discord  and  confusion,  109  ;  re- 
form, 110-2 ;  original  foundations 
restored,  114;  attractive  to  continental 
students,  115;  library  founded,  115; 
Professor  of  Mathematics,  115;  oath 
of  allegiance,  115;  records  badly  kept, 
216;  matriculation  rolls,  216;  church- 
man   as     Chancellor,     217;      layman 


appointed,  217  ;  Faculty  of  Medicine, 
217;  union  of  colleges,  217;  Si 
Mary's  refusal,  217;  royal  assent 
granted,  218;  union  necessary,  218; 
staff,  218;  management,  218;  United 
College,  218-9;  curriculum,  219; 
election  of  Rector,  219-20  ;  eligible  as 
Rector,  220;  professorial  staft,  221  ; 
general  muddle,  221;  teaching  of 
French,  221-2  ;  chairs  founded,  223; 
bursaries,  223;  daily  prayers,  223-4; 
common  table,  224,  232;  residence, 
224,232;  Divinity  session,  224  ;  public 
worship,  224-f;  repairs  made,  225; 
new  buildings,  225  ;  professorship  of 
education,  337  ;  litigation  with  Univer- 
sity College  of  Dundee,  360 ;  medical 
faculty  with  Dundee,  365  ;  special 
ordinances  required,  365-6  ;  degrees 
without  residence,  366  ;  affiliated  with 
Dundee,  368 

St  George's  College,  294 

St  Giles,  part  used  as  school,  77 

St  Kilda,  183 

St  Leonard's  College,  46,  48,   111,    115, 
216-7,  223-5 

St  Mary's  College,  46,  49,  1 1 1,  217,  219, 
221,  223 

St  Mungo  s  College,  369 

St  Paul's  School,  49 

St  Salvator's  College,  46,  109-11,  115, 
216,  217,  223-4 

"Scail,"  5 

Sckola  III  us  tr  is,  40,   154 

Scholarships,  music,  266 

Schools,  monastery,  i  ;  encouraged  by 
Church  and  King,  i  ;  pre-reformation, 
2;  "Lecture,"  2;  connection  with 
Church,  3-5  ;  cathedral,  abbey,  col- 
legiate, 1 5-6  ;  prohibition  of  private, 
19  ;  stepping-stone  to  the  Church,  21  ; 
Burgh,  80;  Parish,  80-1;  Town 
Councils'  interest,  81  ;  Church  and 
Councils  co-operate,  82 ;  partly  burghal, 
partly  parochial,  83  ;  visitations  and 
examinations,  85;  grammar,  153; 
advanced  type,  164  ;  private,  164,  195  ; 
holidays,  165  ;  discipline,  165-8 ; 
teachers,  169-72  ;  course  of  study, 
172-5  ;  primary  and  burgh,  176,  392  ; 
fees,  1 76  ;  poor  buildings,  1  76  ;  Nler- 
chant  Company,  177-8;  thirteen 
P'oundation,  178;  S.P.C.K.,  181-91; 
in  18:1,  public,  188;  statistics,  188; 
General  Assembly  and  Sessional,  193-5; 
384  needed  in  Mighlands,  194  ;  sub- 
scription and  private,  195  ;  vacant  in 
18th  century,  197;  parish,  196-206, 
277  ;  improvement  in,  205  ;  compare 
favourably   with   old,    205 ;     Sabbath, 

28—3 


438 


INDEX 


.  208;  Infant,  209;  Training,  209-1:; 
Practising,  212  ;  Higher  Grade,  276; 
public  and  old  parish,  277;  fresh  sub- 
jects introduced,  277  ;  Dick  Bequest, 
278;  superior  in  North-Eastern  coun- 
ties, 28=;  ;  secondary,  300-2,  402-7  ; 
experimental,  science  and  drawing, 
324;   evening,  329;   Roman  Catholic, 

392 

School   accommodation,    197,   204,   300, 

School-board,  burgh  and  higher  grade 
schools,  300 ;  evening  schools,  329  ; 
secondary  schools,  404 

School  buildings,  176,  197,  199,  200, 
205,  300,  327,  392,  403 

School  discipline,  87,  165;  its  mainte- 
nance, 16-;,  168;  "decuriones  and 
censors,"  167  ;  Dr  Melvin  of  Aberdeen, 
168  ;  in  Aberdeenshire,  204-5 

School  fees,  fixed  by  Town  Councils,  102, 
176 

School  hours,  87,  164-5 

Schoolmasters,  not  allowed  to  be  minis- 
ters, 96 

Schoolmasters'  Widows'  Fund,  origin, 
205 ;  constituted,  206 ;  compulsory 
subscriptions,  206  ;  Burgh  and  Paro- 
chial alone,  206  ;  administration,  206  ; 
statistics,  206 ;  unfortunately  discon- 
tinued, 206 

Science,  162,  175,  241,  277,  285,  295, 
326-7,  367 

Science  and  Art  Department,  276,  409 

Sciences,  moral  and  political,  118 

Scolae  triviales  veriiaciilae,  85 

"Scole  durris  steikit,"  84 

Scoloc,  6,  8 

Scot,  traditional  character,  199 

Scotch  Education  Department,  high 
standard  demanded  by,  197  ;  Science 
and  Art  Department,  276,  326;  aim  in 
code  of  1873,  277;  transference  of 
Presbyterian  training  colleges  to,  298 ; 
reorganised,  312  ;  judicious  use  of 
funds,  316  ;  Equivalent  Grant,  321-3  ; 
issues  circular  of  loth  June,  1897, 
323  ;  a  technical  education,  325  ;  pro- 
gressive but  hurried,  331;  agricultural 
education,  374-5  ;  policy  in  secondary 
schools,  407 

Scotland,  in  the  15th  century,  63-5; 
position  among  educated  nations,  78-9, 
179,  198,  203  ;  unique  record  for 
education,  97  ;  university  progress  de- 
layed, 113;  alternate  Presbyterianism 
and  Episcopacy,  113;  half-civilised, 
154;  in  the  i8th  century,  198;  poverty 
and  discord,  198  ;  education  retarded, 
201-2 


Scots  affairs.,  130 

Scots  College,  30,  39 

Scots  Law,  258  ;  Marischal  College,  252  ; 
Edinburgh,  262 

Scottish  Code,  179,  204  ;  of  1873,  275-8  ; 
of  1905,  324 

Scottish  dialect  taught  at  an  early  date, 
25 

Scottish  history,  362 

Scott,  Sir  Walter,  220,  240,  269 

Scriptures,  translation  of,  20 ;  teaching 
of,  138,  149 

Scroggie,  Alexander,  133,  279  ' 

"Seal  of  cause,"  155;  rules  laid  down, 
155  ;  dissection,  155 

Secondary  Education,  300-32  ;  link  be- 
tween primary  schools  and  university, 
304  ;  department  takes  active  interest 
in,  312-3;  Equivalent  Grant,  319-22; 
circular  of  loth  June,  1897,323;  pro- 
gress towards,  325;  steady  advance, 
331-2;  unsatisfactory  condition,  340; 
scheme  gradually  developing,  407 ; 
high  aim  of  Education  Department, 
407 

Secondary  instruction,  in  parish  schools, 
196  ;  general  advance  in,  325 

Secondary  Schools,  277,  300,  332,  402-7; 
circumstances  unfavourable  to,  300-1  ; 
and  parish  schools,  302-3 ;  anomalous 
position,  303,  311;  commencement  of 
inspection,  313  ;  development  of  in- 
spection, 317  ;  increase  in  numbers, 
324  ;  intermediate  and  secondary,  402  ; 
junior  student  centres,  402  ;  £1  grant, 
and  ;,^5  grant,  402-3  ;  risk  of  over- 
pressure, 403  ;  Education  Fund  (Scot- 
land), 403-4  ;  no  longer  treated  as  step- 
children, 404 ;  grants  to  endowed 
schools,  404-5 

Secularisation  of  the  Church's  patrimony, 
79,  80 

Secular  trend  of  thought,  240-1 

Semi-bajan,  148,  260 

Semitic  language,  343 

Semi-year,  244 

Senatus  Academicus,  217-8,  220-2,  236, 
238-9,  242-3,  245,  250,  252,  261,  266, 
269,  271-3,  297,  333,  335,  337.  340. 
345-6,  353,  361  ;  membership  in  all 
four  universities,  338 

Senior  Student,  298,  398-9 

Separate  Code  for  Scotland,  205 

Servers,  see  also  "sizars,"  223 

Servitors,  37 

Shorthand,  277,  324 

Sibbald,  Dr,  133,  279 

Sibbald,  Sir  Robert,  156-7 

Simpson  prizes,  246 

Simson,  98 


INDEX 


439 


Simson,  Professor  Robert,  131 

Six  synods  in  need  of  schools,  192 

Sizars,  37,  139 

Skene,  Dr,  2^1 

Skene,  Robert,  1  2 

Smeaton,  1 1 : 

Smith,  Adam,  231,  240 

Snell  exhibitions,  r  19 

Social  conditions  changed,  277 

"  Soft  option,"  283,  356 

Spanish,  342 

S.r.C.K.  foundation,  181-2;  patent 
gninte<l,  182  ;  members,  Protestant, 
182  ;  ended  by  General  Assembly,  182  ; 
originated  by  private  individuals,  182  ; 
teachers,  catechists  and  missionaries, 
182-3  ;  Established  Church,  183  ; 
widened  scope,  183  ;  capital,  183  ; 
teachers'  emoluments,  183  ;  steady 
growth,  183;  Royal  Commission,  183; 
^  20,000  lost  to  Society,  183  ;  Royal 
donation,  183-4  ;  Society  prosperous, 
184;  branches  taught,  184;  new 
patent,  184  ;  expansion  of  studies,  184; 
detailsofwork,  184;  schoolsstill needed, 
184;  conditions  of  erection,  185; 
missionary  zeal,  185;  dames'  schools, 
185;  management,  185-6;  salaries, 
186;  much  to  contend  with,  i86; 
inadequate  payment,  186;  increasing 
usefulness,  187  ;  attendance,  187  ; 
expenditure,  187  ;  adverse  conditions, 
187  ;  statistics,  188-9,  291  ;  affected  by 
disruption,  189-90;  compensationgiven, 
190;  work  goes  on,  igo;  increased 
salaries,  190-1  ;  schools  reduced  in 
number,     191  ;    schools    discontinued, 

291  ;  bursaries  established,  291  ; 
itinerating  teachers,  291  ;  area  of 
bursary  scheme,  292;  Society's  original 
intention,  292  ;  Gaelic,  292  ;  high 
place  taken  by  bursars,  292  ;  Highlands 
and    Islands,    29:  ;    changes   effected, 

292  ;  grants,  292  ;  bursary  of  £^0,  293; 
subjects  for  school  bursaries,  293  ;  wise 
foresight,  293  ;  clean  record,  unselfish 
aim,  293 

Specialised  teaching,  214  ;  much  needed, 

214-5 
Specific  subjects,  275 
Spottiswood,  Archbishop,  61,    115,  126, 

158 

Spottiswoode,  John,  258 

Stagnation  in  university  life,  226 

Standard  and  class  subjects,  275 

Stanhope,  Earl,  336 

State-aided  schools,  area  widened,   200 ; 

steady  increase,  202 
Statistics  of,  University  of  St  Andrews, 

378-9  ;  University  of  Glasgow,  380-2  ; 


Queen  Margaret  College,  382-3 
University  of  Aberdeen,  ^^i-t^ 
Marischal  College  Extension,  385-7 
University  of  Edinburgh,  388-91 

Statutes  of  St  Leonard's,  48 

Stentmaster,  102,  175,  236 

Steven,  Greek  in  Edinburgh,  173 

Stewart's,  Daniel,  College,  178,  305 

Stewart,  260 

Stirling,  earliest  known  school,  2  ;  school 
visitation,  86  ;  food  allowance  of 
master,  104  ;  arithmetic  taught,  162 

Stirling  of  Keir,  336 

Stirling,  Principal,  226 

Stow,  David.  207-8  ;  thoughts  on  educa- 
tion, 208  ;  high  ideal,  208-9  '  Glasgow 
Infant  School  Society,  209 ;  public 
interest  aroused,  209;  growth  of  system, 
209 ;  Glasgow  Educational  Society, 
209;  system  spreading,  210;  Disrup- 
tion, 211  ;  adheres  to  Free  Church, 
211;  new  building  in  Cowcaddens, 
211 ;  death,  2  i  f 

Struthers,  Dr,  317,  325 

Stuart,  Archbishop  A.,  46 

Stuart,  Dr,  222 

Student,  wandering  life,  ^2  ;  migration, 
32-3 ;  lawless  life  in  Paris,  33  ;  in 
England  and  Scotland,  34 ;  begging 
legitimate,  ^=t ;  ditties,  35-6  ;  privileged 
person,  36;  public  begging,  37;  un- 
satisfactory conduct,  37-8  ;  varied  pur- 
suits, 38  ;  Reformation  affects  attend- 
ance, 109;  lawless  and  quarrelsome, 
114  ;  bursaries  for  poor  students,  116  ; 
English  dissenters  in  Scotland,  122  ; 
interchange  of,  127  ;  daily  life  in 
Aberdeen,  135;  Protestantism,  135; 
red  gowns,  137  ;  gowns  in  Edinburgh, 
147  ;  too  youthful,  152  ;  in  college 
chambers,  215-6  ;  St  Andrews,  election 
of  Rector,  220;  daily  prayer,  St  Mary's, 
223;  irregular  behaviour,  224;  Divinity, 
no  fees,  224  ;  public  worship,  St 
Andrews,  224-5  •  unsatisfactory  con- 
duct in  Glasgow,  227  ;  town  and  gown 
riots,  227  ;  fines  and  magistrates,  230; 
acting  of  plays,  230 ;  dislike  of  resi- 
dence and  common  table,  231  ;  Irish, 
English,  foreign,  232  ;  narrow  means, 
232;  Arts,  in  Glasgow,  236;  graduation 
fees,  236;  expelled  in  1716,  239; 
board  and  residence,  241-2  ;  espionage 
of,  242  ;  age  in  Aberdeen,  244  ;  Coven- 
anters in  Edinburgh,  259;  ^i. A.  degree 
in  Edinburgh,  261  ;  musical  training, 
266  ;  men  and  women,  277  ;  prelimi- 
nary examination,  340-1 

Studium  generale,  31.  54;  59,  62,  64.  146 

Substitution  of  languages,  289 


440 


INDEX 


Summary  of,  Chapter  I,  28-9;  Chapter 

XI,  158-60;  Chapter  XXVI,  376-7 
Sunday  duties,  27,  100,  118,  175 
Superannuation  allowance,  274-5 
"Superintendent,"  107 
"  Supervenientes,""  259 
Supplementary  courses,  276 
Supply  of  teachers,  296 
Suppost,  39,  55 
Surgeons,  156,  262-3 
Surgeon- Apothecaries,  156,  262 

Surgerv,  349;  Glasgow,  233-4;  Aber- 
deen, 244,  252 ;  Edinburgh,  264  ; 
St  Andrews,  360 

Surgical  corporation,  154,  262-3 

Sutherland,  183 

Sutherland,  Professor,  157 

Symonds,  J.  A.,  34 

Syriac,  Marischal  College,  138,  250 

Systematic  Surgery,  338 

Systematic  Theology,  132 

Tain,  164 

Tawse,  168 

Teacher,  see  also  "  Master "  :   admission 
ceremony,  91,  170;  appointment,  169; 
examination,  169,  170;  after  probation, 
169;  tenure  of  office,   170,   171,  200; 
Confession  of  Faith,  171  ;  less  stringent 
rules,    171;    oath   of  allegiance,    171; 
political  disability,  171  ;  salaries,  175; 
handicapped    by    revised    code,    179; 
S.P.C.K.  schools,  183  ;  itinerant,  183  ; 
emoluments,  183,  186  ;  strong  sense  of 
duty,  186;  General  Assembly  schools, 
193  ;  disruption,  194;  John  Knox  on  re- 
muneration of,  196  ;  half-starved,  197  ; 
hard  and depressinglife,  1 97 ;  encouraged 
by  Church,  198  ;  election  and  require- 
ments, 198  ;  moral  support,  198  ;  poorly 
paid  and   housed,    199;    results,  199; 
Confession  of  Faith,  and  Formula,  200  ; 
Bible  and  Catechism,  200 ;  examination 
of,  200  ;  dismissal  of,  200  ;  parchment, 
200;  allowed  free  play,  201  ;  government 
report,  201  ;  augmentation  grant,  201 ; 
servant    of    State,    201  ;     certificated, 
201  ;  certificates  granted,   201-2  ;   not 
systematically  trained,  207  ;  official  of 
college   and   university,    214;  security 
of  tenure  abolished,  274;  no  legal  pen- 
sions, 274;  unequal  treatment,  2 74;  Ele- 
mentary School  Teachers  (Superannua- 
tion) Act,  274-5;  inadequate  compen- 
sation, 275;  Education  Act,  1908,  275; 
more  freedom  of  action,  276;  old  parish 
teacher,  278;  over-estimated,  278;  few 
graduates,  278;  in  Dick  Bequest  schools, 
283  ;  elementary,  graduates,  286  ;   ad- 
vance   in   equipment,   295-6 ;    King's 


students,    296 ;    sent    to    France    and 
Germany,  327  ;   tenure  of  office,  pen- 
sions, 395  ;  training  of,  396-40 1 
Teacher's  Diploma,  294 
Teaching,  208 
Technical  Classes,  327-6 
Technical    Education,   408-13  ;  vigorous 
movement  towards,  408  ;  Frenchman's 
opinion  of  Andersonian  College,  408 ; 
Mechanics    Institutes,    failures,     408  ; 
effect    of    Exhibition    of    1851,    409; 
gradual   growth    of,  409-10;  valuable 
service    of    South    Kensington,    409 ; 
Technical    Instruction    Act    of    1889, 
409  ;   Aberdeen,  Edinburgh  and  Glas- 
gow,   410;    excellent    work    of  com- 
mittees,   4 10- 1  ;     Fleriot  -  Watt    and 
Glasgow    Technical  Colleges,    41 1-2; 
remarkable  development,  41 2-3 
Technical  Institutions,  327,  328 
Technical  Schools  (Scotland)  Act,  318 
Technology,  chair    in    Edinburgh,   265, 

266 ;  suppressed,  267 
Tenure  of  office,  4,  21,  29,  91,  170,  171, 

200,  354,  395 
Tertian  year,  244 
Test  Act,  273 
Tests,  93,  195 

Theology,  55,   67,   118;  chair   of,    132; 
competition,  132;  lectures,  150;  Glas- 
gow, 235,  236;  Edinburgh,  257 
Thesis,  150,  235,  261,  336 
Thomson,  Professor,  natural  philosophy, 

246 
Thomson,  Professor,  music,  266 
Three  years'  curriculum,  270 
Thurot,  student  life  in  Paris,  33 
Town  Council,  jealousy  of  Church,  83  ; 
Burntisland,  83  ;  searching  visitations, 
85-9  ;  Edinburgh  University,  146,  154  ; 
co-operation     with     Presbytery,    161  ; 
acting  of  plays,  163;  liberality  towards 
burgh   schools,  175,  176;  friction  with 
Senatus,  268  ;  contest  between  Hamil- 
ton and  Wilson,  269  ;    midwifery  and 
graduation,  269 ;    quarrels    with    Uni- 
versity, 272  ;  and  University,  334-5 
Town's  College,  144,  147-8 
Town  and  gown  riots,  227 
Training,  208 

Training  Colleges,  Church  of  Scotland, 
210-1  ;  Free  Church,  211;  condition 
of  Scotland,  211  ;  effect  of  Disrup- 
tion, 212  ;  stimulated  by  rivalry,  212  ; 
bitter  feeling  disappears,  212;  Epis- 
copal, 212;  nine  colleges,  294 
Training  College  student,  advance  in  edu- 
cation, 295  ;  secondary  subjects,  295  ; 
practical  work,  295  ;  in  Provincial 
Training  Colleges,  398-401 


INDEX 


441 


Traininfj  schools  and  colleges,  209-13 

Training  of  teachers,  Mulcasler,  207  ; 
in  France  and  Germany,  207  ;  spread 
of  institutions,  207  ;  Hell  and  Lan- 
caster, 207  ;  good  methods  necessary, 
207;  colleges  for,  210-3;  secondary 
teachers,  294 ;  regulations  of  1905, 
297,  397  ;  Provincial  Committees,  298, 
397  ;  new  regulations,  318;  minute  of 
1905,  396-7  ;  four  Provincial  Com- 
mittees, 397  ;  Primary  teachers,  397  ; 
junior  students,  398  ;  senior  students, 
398-9 ;  teachers  of  higher  subjects, 
399-400 ;  teachers  of  special  subjects, 
400  ;  statistics  of  Provincial  Training 
Colleges,  401 

Treatise  0/ Human  Nature,  24 1 

Trevelyan,  Sir  George,  321 

Trivium,  67,  1 19,  214 

Trust  for  Education  in  the  Highlands 
and  Islands  of  Scotland,  291 

Tulchan  Bishop,  1 1 2 

"  Turfes,  kairtfull  of,"  103 

Turnbull,  Bishoji,  53 

Turner,  Sir  William,  292 

Tutorial  classes,  339 

Tutors,  81 

Tyrones,  228 

Uniformity  of  standard,  153 
Unique  record  among  nations,  97 
United  College,  see  "  St  Andrews,"'  218, 

225 
Universal  History,  see  "  History,"  262 
Universitas,  31 

Universities,  Foundation  of  three  Scot- 
tish, 2;  English  and  continental,  30; 
gratlual  growth,  30-1  ;  for  laity  as  well 
as  Church,  38  ;  lay  element  in  govern- 
ment, 68  ;  points  in  common  of  the 
three,  75  ;  aim.  progress,  decay,  75  ; 
affected  by  Reformation,  108-9 ' 
commission  sent  to  all  three,  no; 
private  tutors  and  Privy  Council,  136  ; 
church  no  longer  predominant,  249  ; 
institutions  of  State,  249  ;  two  land- 
marks in  history  of,  333;  and 
central  university,  335  ;  accessibility 
beneficial,  339  ;  affiliation  of  new 
colleges,  346,  368  ;  Committee  of  the 
Privy  Council,  346  ;  additional  assist- 
ants, 352  ;  patronage,  356-7;  finances, 
357;  pensions,  357-8;  pension  fund 
established,  358 ;  scale  of  pensions, 
358  ;  new  chairs,  359-60 ;  moneys 
paid  to,  360 ;  changes  in  Arts  curri- 
culum, 413  ;  extension  of  the  session, 
413;  reduction  in  number  of  subjects, 
413-4;  freedom  in  framing  curricula, 
414;  otiier  changes  in  curriculum,  414; 


bursary  regulations,  414-5  ;  new  chairs 
and  lectureships,  415;  Imperial  Grants, 
416;  Carnegie  Trust  grants,  416; 
private  benefactions,  416 

University,  customs  in  early  times,  32  ; 
cosmopolitan  nature  of,  43  ;  medieval, 
51;  instruction,  70  ;  reform  not  carried 
out,  1 10;  progressdelayed,  1 13  ;  many 
Commissions,  113;  condition  unsatis- 
factory, 113;  character  altered,  126-7; 
interchange  of  students,  127  ;  reform, 
137;  "feeders  of  the,"  200  ;  education, 
lowest  position,  214  ;  stagnation,  226; 
spirit  of  earnestness,  229  ;  decrease  in 
men  students,  277  ;  generosity  of 
members,  277-8 

University  Court,  333,  353-6.  3'5o.  362  ; 
members  and  functions,  334  ;  appoint- 
ment of  professors,  335,  337  ;  prelimin- 
ary examination,  340;  new  constitution, 
345-6 ;  patronage  transferred  to,  356-7; 
lectureships  in  St  Andrews,  367  ;  dip- 
loma of  public  health,  367-8;  aftiliation 
of  new  colleges,  368 ;  instruction  in 
agriculture,  374 

University  College,  Dundee,  360,  365, 
368 

University  College,  Oxford,  2 

University  Education,  for  poor  man's 
cliildren,  276  ;  less  necessary  now,  277  ; 
lowered  estimate  of,  277  ;  decrease  in 
men  students,  277  ;  farmers  and  mer- 
chants, 277 

Unrest  in  university  life,  158 

Upsala,  132 

Utrecht,  258 

Vaus,  John,  25,  33,  72,  98 

Vernacular  forbidden,  24,  27,  87,  165,  231 

Veterinary  Science,  375  ;   Royal  College 

of,  373 
Veterinary  Surgery,  chair  in  Edinburgh, 

264 

Vice-Chancellor,  also  "Rector,"  in  St 
Andrews,  217 

Victoria,  Queen,  254 

"  Virtuous  education,"'  200 

Visitation,  royal,  115,  219:  to  Glasgow 
University,  122-3;  '"  ^"  universities, 
124;  to  Aberdeen,  132,  133;  to  St 
Andrews,  216;  to  Edinburgh,  259,  269 

Vital  Statistics,  368 

Vocat,  13 

Wardlaw,  Bishop,  40,  41,  42,  43,  45 
Watson's  Boys'  College,  George,  178,  304 
Watson's  Ladies'  College,  George,  305 
Watson,  John,  392 

Watt  Institution  and  School  of  Arts,  370 
Watt,  James,  240 


442  INDEX 

Wealth  of  Nations,  241  Wilson,  Professor  John,  166 

Wedderburne,  98,  172  Winchester,  10 

Wedderhurn,  D.,  132,  279  Wodrow,  93 

Welsh  Intermediate  Education  Act,  320         Women,  higher   education   of,    Glasgow 

West  of  Scotland  Agricultural  College,           association    formed,    361  ;    association 

038  becomes  college,   361 

Wheelock,  185  Worsted  stockings,  194 

Whipping,   in  schools,    166-8;  different       "Wrangler,"  150 

examples,   168  Wrestling,  88 

Wight,  Dr  John,  417  Writing  on  sand,  176 
Wigtown,  162 

William  and  Mary,  115  Young,  T.  Graham,  417 

William  III,  124,  229,  257  .  .         ^ 

Wilson,  George,  267  Zeal  of  municipal  authorities,  161 

Wilson,  John,  269  Zoology,  221,  342,  344,  349,  362,  369 


CAMBRIDGE:    PRINTED   BY  JOHN   CLAY,    M.A.,    AT   THE    UNIVERSITY   PRESS 


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